Instalacje basenowe

Comparative analysis of water consumption

in twinned indoor swimming pools

in aSilesian Voivodeship of Poland

Analiza porównawcza zużycia wody wbliźniaczych krytych pływalniach

wwojewództwie śląskim, wPolsce

ANNA MIKASHALYHA, JOANNA WYCZARSKAKOKOT, ANNA LEMPARTRAPACEWICZ

DOI 10.36119/15.2025.2.5

Introduction

The contemporary geopolitical land-

scape, coupled with an escalating water

crisis marked by increasingly frequent

droughts followed by severe floods and

other natural disasters, requires urgent and

comprehensive intervention from govern-

ments, facility managers, and urban plan-

ners. Acentral challenge in this context is the

need to minimize the anthropogenic impacts

on ecosystems to preserve their integrity and

stability [1–4].

Modern society is characterized by sig-

nificant dynamism, evident in enhanced qual-

ity of life, escalating consumerism, and an

increased reliance on non-renewable

resources. Regrettably, these factors have led

to awidening disparity between the essential

requirements of the natural environment and

the socio-economic demands of society. As

consumer expectations rise, the strain on nat-

ural resources increases, underscoring the

need for strategies that promote both eco-

nomic development and environmental sus-

tainability [5,6].

To address these complex issues, it is

imperative to adopt a holistic sustainable

development strategy that includes rational

resource management, ecological education

initiatives, and the promotion of conscious

lifestyle changes among individuals and com-

munities. By enhancing awareness of the

mgr inż. Anna Mika-Shalyha https://orcid.org/0009-0007-7733-039X ‒ Politechnika Śląska, Wydział Inżynierii Środowiska iEnergetyki,

Katedra Inżynierii Wody iŚcieków, Gliwice. PPUH Transcom Sp. zo.o., Katowice. e-mail: anna.mika-shalyha@polsl.pl

dr hab. inż. Joanna Wyczarska-Kokot, prof. PŚ https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2284-8542 ‒ Politechnika Śląska, Wydział Inżynierii Środowiska

iEnergetyki, Katedra Inżynierii Wody iŚcieków, Gliwice

dr inż. Anna Lempart-Rapacewicz https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7524-1277 ‒ Politechnika Śląska, Wydział Inżynierii Środowiska iEnergetyki,

Katedra Inżynierii Wody iŚcieków, Gliwice. PPUH Transcom Sp. zo.o., Katowice. e-mail: anna.lempart-rapacewicz@polsl.pl.

Adres do korespondencji/Corresponding author e-mail: joanna.wyczarska-kokot@polsl.pl

I nstalacje basenowe/Pool installations

Swimming pools, due to their specific nature, are sports facilities for which demand is highest for water of aquality

subject to restrictive regulations. The objective of this study is to provide adetailed characterisation of the structure of

water consumption in three ‘twin’ swimming pool facilities located in Poland, in the Silesian Voivodeship. Each of the

analysed facilities includes asports pool, arecreational pool with water attractions, awater slide, awhirlpool and

achildren’s paddling pool. The findings of this study demonstrate astrong correlation between water consumption

and the type of users and water management practices employed. In particular, it was found that recreational pools

with water attractions (slides, whirlpools) used significantly more water than traditional sports pools. The findings of this

case study offer avaluable foundation for the development of strategies aimed at enhancing the efficiency of water

management in swimming pool facilities.

Keywords: swimming pools, water consumption, effective management, sustainability, technology optimisation.

Obiekty basenowe, ze względu na swoją specyfikę, są obiektami sportowymi onajwiększym zapotrzebowaniu na

wodę ojakości regulowanej restrykcyjnymi przepisami. Niniejsza praca ma na celu szczegółową charakterystykę

struktury zużycia wody wtrzech „bliźniaczych” obiektach basenowych zlokalizowanych wPolsce, wwojewódz-

twie śląskim. Wkażdym zanalizowanych obiektów znajduje się basen sportowy, basen rekreacyjny zatrakcjami

wodnymi, zjeżdżalnia wodna, wanna zhydromasażem ibrodzik dla dzieci. Wyniki badań dowodzą, że istnieje

silna korelacja między zużyciem wody arodzajem użytkowników istosowanymi praktykami zarządzania wodą.

Wszczególności dla basenów rekreacyjnych wyposażonych watrakcje wodne (zjeżdżalnie, hydromasaże) wyka-

zano znacznie wyższe zużycie wody wporównaniu ztradycyjnymi basenami typu sportowego. Wyniki niniejsze-

go studium przypadku mogą zostać wykorzystane do opracowania strategii optymalizacji efektywnego zarządza-

nia wodą wobiektach basenowych.

Słowa kluczowe: baseny, zużycie wody, efektywne zarządzanie, zrównoważony rozwój, optymalizacja techno-

logii.

www.informacjainstal.com.pl 2/2025

2/2025 www.informacjainstal.com.pl

importance of sustainability, it is possible to

maintain ahigh standard of living while simul-

taneously mitigating adverse environmental

impacts.

As social priorities evolve, there is

agrowing demand for amodern sports infra-

structure, particularly in terms of physical

activity and healthy living. However, many

existing facilities, such as swimming pools

and aqua parks, require substantial modern-

ization, especially in terms of technical infra-

structure, energy systems and effective water

and wastewater management [7–9].

This work aims to provide a detailed

analysis of water consumption patterns in

three comparable swimming pool facilities in

Poland. Despite the implementation of con-

temporary technological solutions, the levels

of water consumption in these facilities

remain high. Asystematic comparison of this

data with analogous facilities in other Euro-

pean countries will facilitate the identification

of best practices and the development of

innovative solutions aligned with sustainable

development principles and closed-water

circulation systems in the design of modern

swimming pools in Poland [10,11].

One critical issue is the irreversible loss of

significant amounts of water that is dis-

charged into sewage systems. Establishing

legislative measures that impose strict limits

on water and electricity consumption for

investors, stakeholders from the public sector,

and facility managers is essential [12]. Such

regulations would encourage the adoption

of advanced devices and technologies that

improve resource management efficiency. By

implementing these practices, facilities can

maintain high-quality service delivery while

significantly reducing the wastage of essen-

tial natural resources [13,14].

The water used within swimming pools

encompasses various activities, including the

washing of filters, the operation of foot pad-

dling pools, compensation for losses due to

splashing and evaporation, and periodic

replacement of water. Fortunately, these

water sources can be effectively recycled

through the appropriate systems. Advanced

technologies, such as membrane filtration

processes, ozonation systems, and advanced

oxidation methods, facilitate the safe and

efficient treatment of water, thereby allowing

for its reuse in replenishing swimming pool

basins or for sanitary purposes [15–18].

In addition, sports and swimming pool

facilities typically feature large roof surfaces

that present valuable opportunities for rain-

water collection. Rainwater harvested can

serve multiple applications, including irriga-

tion of green spaces during summer months

or as aresource for technological and sani-

tation processes. By analyzing data on water

consumption, user attendance patterns, and

the specific characteristics of each facility, it is

possible to establish clear and actionable

principles aimed at optimizing water man-

agement practices. This analysis also enables

user profiling, identifying potential risks, and

the formulation of effective water conserva-

tion strategies [19].

In conclusion, the implementation of

modern sustainable technologies in sports

facilities not only contributes to environmental

protection, but also advances the develop-

ment of infrastructure according to global

sustainable development objectives. By pri-

oritizing sustainability within the sports and

recreation sector, significant progress can be

made towards the promotion of ahealthier

environment and the adoption of a more

responsible approach to water resource

management [20].

Materials and methods

Subject of the study

The objective of this study was to perform

an analysis of water consumption in three

sports facilities (P1, P2 and P3) located in the

Silesian Voivodeship in Poland, which encom-

passed both a swimming pool area and

asports complex. All facilities were operated

by a single management company, which

facilitated the implementation of a uniform

management system. Standardization of pro-

cedures, including the filter washing schedule,

disinfection processes, and maintenance of

water quality parameters, was an essential

component of the research methodology. This

approach ensured that data related to water

consumption in the analysed facilities could be

effectively compared.

Characteristics of the twin sports facilities

The analysed facilities (P1, P2 and P3)

are divided into three functional zones.

The first zone is designated as the public

area, which encompasses the entrance hall

with acafé, cash registers, changing rooms,

and administrative offices. This area facilitates

access to the changing rooms within the

sports zone, the swimming pool, and the

spectator stands.

The second zone is the large swimming

pool hall. There is asports pool (25 m × 16 m)

that has been constructed in accordance with

the requirements of the FINA to host com-

petitive events, a pool designed for swim-

ming instruction and recreational water activ-

ities. The recreational part incorporates

avariety of water attractions, including neck

massages, wall and water-air massages, an

air geyser, awater mushroom, air benches,

a jacuzzi, a paddling pool for young chil-

dren, and a braking tub for water slides.

Additionally, the facilities feature 80-meter-

long slides, with portions extending out-

doors, as well as aselection of hydromas-

sage tubs and sauna zones.

The third zone is the ‘dry’ sports section

which comprises afitness zone and agym,

both of which are equipped with changing

facilities and sanitary amenities accessible to

people with disabilities. The main sports hall

includes courts for volleyball and basketball.

Aseparate reception area, intended as acus-

tomer service point, is equipped with await-

ing room for patrons of the sports section.

The complete technical infrastructure for

the facilities is situated in the sub-basin, thus

ensuring efficient management of the opera-

tion and maintenance processes.

The swimming pool area (in each swim-

ming pool facility) is equipped with four

closed-water treatment circuits (systems): sys-

tem Ifor sports pool (SP), system II for recre-

ational pool with slide (RP), system III for

whirlpool tubs (WT) and system IV for chil-

dren’s paddling pool.

Table 1 provides a comprehensive sum-

mary of the technical parameters associated

with each system that operates as an indepen-

dent water treatment plant. It is essential to

emphasize that the water flow in the individual

circuits is fully segregated, thus precluding any

potential for cross-contamination.

Characteristic of the filtration process and

water circulation systems

The facility employs two distinct filtration

systems: under pressure filtration (system

Iand II) and pressure filtration (system III and

IV). The under pressure filtration system is

designed with an overflow pocket that has

Table 1. Technical data of swimming pool systems in p1, P2 and P3 facilities

Tabela 1. Parametry techniczne systemów basenowych wobiektach P1, P2 iP3

Parameter System I(SP) System II (RP) System III (WT) System IV (CP)

Internal dimensions of the pool [m] 25 × 16 irregular shape Ø2.35 irregular shape

Water surface area [m

] 400 205.8 4.0 28.8

Pool basin volume [m

] 600 210 3.6 14.7

Temperature of water [°C] 28 30 34 32

Circulating water flow [m

/h] 178 260 72 28

Type of filtration Under pressure Pressure

Number of filters [pcs] 2 3 1 1

Filter dimensions [m] 3.0 × 2.0 × 2.3 3.0 × 2.0 × 2.3 D=1.8m D=1.2m

Media type gravel and sand with alayer of activated carbon

www.informacjainstal.com.pl 2/2025

Instalacje basenowe

asignificantly larger surface area, allowing

more efficient washing while utilizing consid-

erably less water. Consequently, this system

is particularly advantageous for swimming

pool applications that require substantial

volume and filtration capacity.

In contrast to conventional closed rapid

filters, under pressure filters separate the

inflow of untreated water from the collection

of filtered water, necessitating process auto-

mation. Water from the expansion tank is

transferred to the filter via apump that oper-

ates on an inverter system, which is con-

trolled based on water level measurements

obtained from a pressure transducer. This

configuration ensures the maintenance of

aconstant water level within the filter.

Concurrently, water is extracted from the

filter by another pump, also powered by an

inverter, and regulated by measurements

obtained from an electromagnetic flowmeter.

This design guarantees consistent filtration

efficacy, regardless of the level of contamina-

tion within the filtration bed.

Circuits III and IV utilize traditional pres-

sure filtration methods, employing multilayer

pressure filters containing activated carbon.

Circulation pumps draw water from the

expansion tank and are integrated with apre-

filter that captures larger impurities, thus pro-

tecting the rotors and other components of the

installation from potential damage. The filtered

water is subsequently pumped into the pres-

sure filters located in the individual systems.

Before the filtration process, acoagulant is

dosed to optimize filtration effectiveness. The

appropriate dosage is determined based on

the concentration of the active agent, Al

According to the standard DIN19643 [21],

the minimum required dose of active coagu-

lant is 0.5 g Al

. Following coagulant

dosing, solid impurities are eliminated within

the pressure filter, which features amultilayer

sand-gravel bed containing activated carbon

with atotal height of 1.2 meters.

Backwashing of the filter is scheduled at

least every three days [22] and is conducted

when the pool is unavailable to users. The

water used for washing is obtained from the

expansion tank, ensuring that the process

employs operational water.

Following the filtration process, the water

is directed to the heat exchangers to achieve

the desired temperature. Before heating, the

water is disinfected by ultraviolet (UV) irradi-

ation. The pH adjuster (sulphuric acid) and

disinfectant (sodium hypochlorite) are then

dosed (Fig. 1). Given the alkaline nature of

sodium hypochlorite, it is imperative that the

pH corrector possess an acidic reaction to

maintain the pool water within the requisite

pH range of 6.5 to 7.6 [23]. The dosing of

both the pH corrector and the disinfectant,

together with the regulation of their respective

concentrations in the pool water, is super-

vised by an automated control and measure-

ment system that directly controls the dosing

pumps. Subsequently, the treated pool water

is transported to the pool basin through asys-

tem of bottom supply channels installed at the

base, which incorporate hydromassage jets

that are an essential component of the pool

basin.

Characteristics of water consumption in

facilities

The use of water in swimming pool facili-

ties can be classified into two primary cate-

gories:

l Domestic and utility water – This catego-

ry encompasses water utilized for the

essential daily needs of facility users,

including operations related to rest-

rooms, showers, cleaning equipment,

and catering services. This water is vital

for ensuring user comfort and efficient

functioning of the facility.

l Technological water – This category

pertains to water employed in various

technological processes, such as the

backwashing of filters, operation of foot

paddling pools, and the compensation

for water losses resulting from evapora-

tion and splashing in pool basins. Tech-

nological water is essential to maintain

appropriate water quality parameters

and ensure the effective operation of fil-

tration systems.

In the context of analysing the use of

water in swimming pool facilities, technologi-

cal water is of particular significance, as it

frequently serves as the primary source of

wastewater generation. Water used in filtra-

tion processes and maintaining pool water

quality is associated with substantial losses

and corresponding operational costs. Thus,

an in-depth understanding of technological

water consumption is imperative for manag-

ing the operational expenses of the facility

and optimizing the water treatment process-

es. Furthermore, it is crucial to continuously

address water losses due to evaporation and

splashing, as these factors significantly influ-

ence the overall water balance within the

facility.

Methodology for measuring water

demand

Water consumption in the three swim-

ming pool facilities under analysis was sys-

tematically monitored utilizing data obtained

from the Building Management System

(BMS), which incorporated water meters

equipped with M-Bus overlays. This system

facilitates the direct transmission of water

meter readings to the M-Bus wired network,

thereby allowing for continuous and accu-

rate monitoring of water usage. Furthermore,

the readings from the water meters were

regularly verified to rectify any potential

measurement errors.

During the entire analysis period, the

water quality consistently adhered to the rel-

evant standards. The water utilized in the

swimming pools was subjected to compre-

hensive testing to ensure compliance with

quality benchmarks as stipulated in legal

regulations, including the Regulation of the

Minister of Health dated May 10, 2022 [23].

Managers of pool facilities are required

to continuously oversee water quality through

regular physicochemical and bacteriological

assessments. This practice is imperative to

ensure user safety and to maintain compli-

ance with the applicable sanitary standards.

Results

From July 2023 to September 2024,

acomprehensive evaluation was conducted

on three twin swimming pool facilities (P1, P2

and P3) located in the Silesian Voivodeship in

Poland, all operated by the same manage-

ment company. The primary objectives of this

research were to analyse the consumption of

water for technological requirements and to

assess the quality of the water. Throughout the

evaluation period, the water quality in all the

facilities examined consistently adhered to the

rigorous standards stipulated in the Minister of

Health Regulation for water intended for use

in swimming pools [23].

Water consumption analysis –

Sports Pool

Analysis of average monthly water con-

sumption in the sports pools, illustrated in

Figure 2a, revealed that the facility P1 exhib-

ited the lowest consumption, averaging

166.63 m

per month. This figure was 51 m

or 24%, lower than the consumption levels

observed in facilities P2 and P3, which

recorded average monthly consumptions of

Figure 1.

Scheme of the pool water treatment

Rysunek 1. Schemat oczyszczania wody base-

nowej

2/2025 www.informacjainstal.com.pl

217.23 m

and 218.74 m

, respectively. The

similarity in the consumption levels of facilities

P2 and P3 indicates comparable operational

characteristics; however, the P2 facility

attracted a significantly higher number of

users, which directly contributed to elevated

water consumption.

Water consumption analysis –

Recreational Pool

Regarding recreational pools, the assess-

ment demonstrated relative stability in water

consumption in all three facilities from July

2023 to May 2024. In particular, the months

of June and July deviated from this trend, as

the facility P3 was temporarily closed for

technological maintenance, resulting in

asignificant decrease in its average monthly

consumption, which fell to 303.38 m

. On

the contrary, facility P1 maintained an aver-

age of 341.92 m

per month, while facility

P2 recorded an average of 347.75 m

per

month (Fig. 2b). The increase in consumption

in facility P2 during this period, which

reached apeak of 441.8 m

per month, can

be attributed to its obligation to accommo-

date users displaced from the inactive P3

facility, illustrating the interconnected nature

of usage in the facilities.

Water consumption analysis –

Whirlpool Tubs

The evaluation of the water consumption

of the whirlpool tubs showed ahigh variabili-

ty, closely related to the frequency of use.

Facility P2, recognised for its popularity with

customers, reported the highest average

monthly water consumption at 152.57 m

. This

figure represents an increase of 24% com-

pared to the facility average of 122.90 m

and is 40% higher than the facility average of

91.43 m

(Fig. 2c). These differences in con-

sumption levels are mainly due to factors such

as increased water loss due to splashing, sig-

nificant evaporation, and agreater need for

frequent filter washing, all of which are exac-

erbated by the high frequency of use.

Water consumption analysis –

Children’s Pool

Finally, the study of children’s pools

revealed astrong correlation between water

consumption, user attendance, and the fre-

quency of swimming lessons. Facility P2 had

the highest average monthly water consump-

tion in this category, reaching 62.26 m

. This

increased consumption can be attributed to

the strategic location of the facility close to

local schools, making it apreferred option for

families and educational activities. In com-

parison, facility P1 recorded an average of

46.78 m

per month, while facility P3 record-

ed an average of 44.82 m

per month,

indicating that facility P2’s consumption was

33% higher than P1 and 39% higher than P3

(Fig. 2d). These data highlight the impact of

demographics of users and geographical

considerations on the effective management

of water resources throughout the facilities.

The percentage share of water consump-

tion of the analysed swimming pool facilities

(P1, P2, P3), categorised by individual water

systems, is shown in Figure 3. An analysis of

the data shows that recreational pools

account for the majority of water consump-

tion. This predominance can be attributed to

the specific operational characteristics of

these pools, which have anumber of water

and air attractions, including water slides.

Such features result in significant water losses

due to evaporation, splashing and the oper-

ational demands of auxiliary systems.

Sports Pools – SP

Sports pools, which represent the largest

capacity in terms of volume and surface area,

rank second in terms of water consumption

c)a)

Figure 2.

Water consumption for pool facilities (P1, P2, P3) depending on the type of pool basin

a) Sports pool (SP), b) Recreation pool (RP), c) Whirlpool Spa tubs (WT), d) Children’s paddling pool (CP)

Rysunek 2. Zużycie wody dla obiektów basenowych (P1, P2, P3) wzależności od rodzaju niecki basenowej a) Basen sportowy (SP), b) Basen rekre-

acyjny (RP), c) Wanny zhydromasażem (WT), d) Brodzik dla dzieci (CP)

a) b) c)

Figure 3.

Average annual water consumption for individual types of swimming pools in the three analysed

facilities a) P1, b) P2, c) P3

Rysunek 3. Średnie roczne zużycie wody dla poszczególnych rodzajów niecek basenowych

wtrzech analizowanych obiektach a) P1, b) P2, c) P3

www.informacjainstal.com.pl 2/2025

Instalacje basenowe

distribution. Although these pools have rela-

tively low levels of contamination and reduced

spray losses, their significant volume has asig-

nificant impact on total water consumption. In

facility P1, the sports pool is responsible for

25% of the total water consumption, which

amounts to 116.6 m

per month. Conversely,

in facilities P2 and P3, the percentage is sig-

nificantly higher at 28% (218 m

/month) and

34% (218 m

/month) respectively, indicating

amore intensive use of these facilities.

Recreational Pool – RP

In facility P1, the recreational pool

accounts for 51% of the total water consump-

tion, corresponding to an average monthly

consumption of 341.92 m

. Facility P2 shows

ashare of 45%, corresponding to amonthly

consumption of 347.75 m

. In contrast, P3

shows that the recreational pool accounts for

47% of the total consumption, with amonthly

figure of 303.38 m

. The higher percentage of

water consumption in these pools is due to the

high level of user engagement and the spe-

cialised nature of the additional equipment.

Whirlpool Spa Tubes – WT

Whirlpool Spa tubes are the third largest

contributor to water consumption, despite

their modest average volume of 3.6 m

Significant water losses occur through evap-

oration and splashing by users. In facility P1,

spas account for 17% of total water con-

sumption, asignificant figure given their lim-

ited capacity. In facility P2, the percentage

rises to 20%, while facility P3 accounts for

14%. The variations in these percentages are

due to differences in user load and the

operational context of each facility.

Children’s Paddling Pools – CP

Children’s paddling pools have the low-

est water losses of all the systems analysed. In

facilities P1 and P3, the percentage is 6%,

while in facility P2 it is slightly higher at 8%.

The lower water consumption in paddling

pools is mainly due to their limited volume

and the comparatively lower number of users

compared to other systems.

Discussion

Sports facilities, especially indoor swim-

ming pools, consume considerable amounts

of water for various technological, opera-

tional and hygienic purposes. This extensive

water use results in the generation of signifi-

cant amounts of wastewater, posing achal-

lenge to effective water resource manage-

ment and sustainability efforts [24-26].

A fundamental component of optimising

water use in these facilities is the implementa-

tion of rational water management practices,

which include monitoring water use and

identifying areas for improvement.

Effective management of water resourc-

es in swimming pools requires careful consid-

eration of water reuse options, including the

use of treated water in technological pro-

cesses. It is also essential to minimise losses

due to evaporation, splashing and inefficien-

cies resulting from operational failures or

inappropriate use.

A study carried out by the authors on

water consumption in three swimming pool

facilities located in the Silesian Voivodeship of

Poland revealed a significant correlation

between water consumption levels and vari-

ous facility parameters, functions, and num-

ber of users. Research conducted by Flora

Silva et al. [7] on aswimming pool facility in

Portugal, which featured both sports and

recreational pools, indicated an annual water

consumption of 8,440.8 m

. Most of this

water was used for technological processes,

such as filter washing and maintenance of

pool basins. The facility’s parameters included

awater surface area of 591.6 m

and atotal

water volume of 1,050 m

, serving as

abenchmark for comparative research.

The results obtained from the analysis of

the three facilities in Silesia (P1, P2, and P3)

revealed annual water consumption figures of

8,002.9 m

, 9,205.9 m

, and 8,130.1 m

respectively. These figures are approximately

consistent with the data collected by the Por-

tuguese research team, indicating potential

areas for knowledge exchange on effective

water management practices in similar swim-

ming pool facilities.

The research carried out by Kampel [27]

in his dissertation focused on a swimming

pool facility with a water surface area of

637.5 m

, which resulted in an annual water

consumption of 11,817 m

. This figure was

found to be 22% higher than the highest

recorded consumption of the facilities in the

Silesian Voivodeship (P2) and 28.6% higher

than the data obtained by the Portuguese

research team [7].

Additional analyses by aSpanish research

team indicate that the average annual water

consumption is 2,017 m

per swimming pool

basin [28], largely due to the need for filter

washing. The authors’ results correlate closely

with an average of 2,111.58 m

, further vali-

dating the accuracy of the data. With regard

to filter rinsing technology, research by Domé-

nech-Sánchez et al. [28] indicates an average

water consumption of 5.53 m

per filter rinse

for a single swimming pool, which is in line

with the results of this study of 5.57 m

Acomparison of daily water consumption

for filter rinsing between Portuguese studies

and data from the Silesian Voivodeship

reveals significant discrepancies. In Portu-

guese studies [7], daily consumption was

determined to be 15.7 m

for the sports pool

and 7.7 m

for the pool for swimming lessons.

On the contrary, the average daily consump-

tion of the sports pool in the facilities P1, P2,

and P3 in Silesia was only 6.48 m

, represent-

ing approximately one-third of the figures

observed in the Portuguese studies. Asimilar

discrepancy emerged for the children’s pool,

where the average daily consumption was

1.52 m

, and for the recreational pool, where

it was 10.67 m

. It is crucial to recognize that

comparing water consumption between rec-

reational pools and swimming lesson pools

requires consideration of the differing roles

these facilities play. The recreational pool, in

addition to serving as a swimming training

area, includes enhanced features such as an

air-water massage zone and a water slide,

both of which significantly contribute to

increased water consumption.

The research conducted by Marco

Maglionico and Irena Stojkov [29] on water

consumption in asmall pool (12 m × 5.5 m ×

1.2 m) located in Bologna, Italy, showed

adaily water consumption of 9.5 m

on days

designated for school and club classes. This

figure is closely aligned with the daily con-

sumption of 10.67 m

recorded in arecre-

ational pool in Poland. On days without

classes, consumption decreased to 6 m

, with

technological water usage for filter washing

that was 4.03 m

per day in this case.

Cardoso et al. [11] also conducted

research in Portugal, comparing water con-

sumption between various swimming pool

facilities by analysing the consumption per

of water surface area. Their findings dem-

onstrated Environmental Performance Index

(EPI) values of 17 m

for afacility that

covered 576 m

(resulting in an annual con-

sumption of 9,792 m

) and 20 m

for

afacility with 746 m

(resulting in an annual

consumption of 14,920 m

). The consistency

of these values with those obtained from the

Silesian Voivodeship, which reported water

consumption indicators of 12.5 m

(P1),

14.4 m

(P2), and 12.7 m

(P3),

underscores the need to analyse water con-

sumption indicators in the context of different

types of swimming pool facilities.

Conclusions

A detailed investigation into water con-

sumption was conducted in three different

swimming pool facilities, encompassing both

sports and recreational pools that feature

water attractions such as water slides, hot tubs,

and paddling pools for children. The findings

of this research are summarised as follows:

l Average water consumption for swim-

ming pool operations:

The mean annual water consumption was

measured at 8,446.3 m

, which equates to an

average monthly consumption of 703.9 m

This figure represents the essential demand for

water required to support the day-to-day

operations of the swimming pool facilities. This

includes compensating for water losses, con-

ducting filter rinsing processes, and ensuring

the maintenance of water quality.

l Correlation between water consumption

and user attendance:

A robust correlation has been demon-

strated between the number of users of recre-

ational pools, water attractions, and instruc-

tional swimming pools, and the quantity of

water consumed. An increase in the number

of bathers has been shown to be directly cor-

related with increased water consumption.

This is attributed to increased splashing, ele-

vated levels of water contamination, and the

need for more frequent filter washing.

l Stability of water consumption in sports

pools:

Sports pools are distinguished by their

stable water consumption patterns, which

exhibit comparability in various facilities. This

consistency can be attributed to two main fac-

tors. Firstly, there is the issue of standardised

pool volumes. Secondly, there is the issue of

the focused nature of user activity, which pre-

dominantly involves swimming as opposed to

the utilisation of recreational amenities.

l Specific characteristics of hot tub water

consumption:

Despite the relatively modest water vol-

ume and surface area occupied by hot tubs,

they are associated with significant water

consumption. The primary factors contribut-

ing to this high level of consumption include:

water splashing induced by users and the

operation of air bubble-generating devices,

and high degrees of water pollution necessi-

tating frequent filter washing and regular

water replacement.

l Influence of swimming lessons on water

consumption:

Anear two-fold increase in water con-

sumption is observed during intensive peri-

ods of swimming lessons for children in swim-

ming pools. This increase can be attributed to

two main factors: the increase in the number

of participants and the intensified use of the

associated infrastructure.

l Recreational pools as the preeminent

water consumers:

The analysis showed that recreational

pools have the highest average monthly water

consumption, calculated at 331.02 m

. This

volume is almost 40% higher than that of

sports pools, despite the latter having three

times the volume capacity. Such findings high-

light the significant impact of user demograph-

ics and the presence of water attractions on

overall water consumption levels.

In conclusion, the present analysis dem-

onstrates that the structural characteristics

and specific usage patterns of swimming

pool facilities are fundamentally important to

determine the intensity of water consumption.

The insights derived from this research can

inform the development of optimisation strat-

egies for effective water management within

swimming pool facilities.

Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the Polish

Ministry of Science and Higher Education as

part of the “Implementation Doctorate 2023”

program, No. DWD/7/0330/ 2023.

REFERENCES

[1] S.C. Addanki and H. Venkataraman, Greening

the economy: Areview of urban sustainability

measures for developing new cities, Sustain

Cities Soc. 32 (2017) 1–8. https://doi.org/

10.1016/j.scs.2017.03.009.

[2] A. Lewandowska and D. Szymańska, Ecologi-

sation of Polish cities in the light of selected

parameters of sustainable development, Susta-

in Cities Soc. 64 (2021) 102538. https://doi.

org/10.1016/j.scs.2020.102538.

[3] R.F.M. Ameen and M. Mourshed, Urban susta-

inability assessment framework development:

The ranking and weighting of sustainability

indicators using analytic hierarchy process,

Sustain Cities Soc. 44 (2019) 356–366

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2018.10.020.

[4] S. van Dijk, A.W. Lounsbury, A.Y. Hoekstra and

R. Wang, Strategic design and finance of rain-

water harvesting to cost-effectively meet large-

-scale urban water infrastructure needs, Water

Res. 184 (2020) 116063. https://doi.org/

10.1016/j.watres.2020.116063.

[5] M. Flörke, C. Schneider and R.I. McDonald,

Water competition between cities and agricul-

ture driven by climate change and urban

growth, Nat Sustain. 1 (2018) 51–58. https://

doi.org/10.1038/s41893-017-0006-8.

[6] M. Flörke, E. Kynast, I. Bärlund, S. Eisner, F.

Wimmer and J. Alcamo, Domestic and indu-

strial water uses of the past 60 years as amirror

of socio-economic development: A global

simulation study, Global Environmental Chan-

ge. 23 (2013) 144–156. https://doi.org/

10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2012.10.018.

[7] F. Silva, A.M. Antão-Geraldes, C. Zavattieri,

M.J. Afonso, F. Freire and A. Albuquerque,

Improving Water Efficiency in a Municipal

Indoor Swimming-Pool Complex: A Case

Study, Applied Sciences. 11 (2021) 10530.

https://doi.org/10.3390/app112210530.

[8] L. Fisher-Jeffes, G. Gertse and N. Armitage,

Mitigating the impact of swimming pools on

domestic water demand, Water SA. 41 (2016)

238. https://doi.org/10.4314/wsa.v41i2.09.

[9] C. Pimentel-Rodrigues and A. Silva-Afonso,

Assessment of Measures to Increase Water

Efficiency in Public Swimming Pools, Sustaina-

bility. 14 (2022) 14726. https://doi.org/

10.3390/su142214726.

[10] K. Kubiak-Wójcicka, D. Domszy and S.

Machula, Best Practices in Wastewater Mana-

gement in Poland with Particular Emphasis on

Swimming Pool Waters, in: Cost-efficient

Wastewater Treatment Technologies. (2022)

485–504. https://doi.org/10.1007/

698_2022_878.

[11] B.J. Cardoso, A.R. Gaspar, J.C. Góis and E.

Rodrigues, Energy and water consumption

characterization of Portuguese indoor swim-

ming pools, in: Proceedings of the CYTEF 2018

VII Congreso Ibérico, Ciencias Y Técnicas Del

Frío, Valencia, Spain. (2018). https://doi.

org/10.31224/osf.io/e8awk.

[12] A. Piasecki, Water and Sewage Management

Issues in Rural Poland, Water (Basel). 11 (2019)

625. https://doi.org/10.3390/w11030625.

[13] K. Kubiak-Wójcicka and M. Kielik, The State of

Water and Sewage Management in Poland, in:

Quality of Water Resources in Poland. (2021)

375–397. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-

030-64892-3_16.

[14] P. Zawadzki and M. Wiesner-Sękala, Advan-

ced wastewater reclamation – a response of

the municipal sector to climate change and

water scarcity, INSTAL 12 (2024) 65-74.

https://doi.org/10.36119/15.2024.12.12.

[15] W. Studziński, W. Poćwiardowski and W. Osiń-

ska, Application of the Swimming Pool Backwash

Water Recovery System with the Use of Filter

Tubes, Molecules. 26 (2021) 6620. https://doi.

org/10.3390/molecules26216620.

[16] P. Pal, Introduction to membrane materials, pro-

cesses, and modules, in: Membrane-Based

Technologies for Environmental Pollution Control,

Elsevier. (2020) 3–69. https://doi.org/

10.1016/B978-0-12-819455-3.00001-7.

[17] M. Wolska and H. Urbańska-Kozłowska,

Assessing the Possibilities of Backwash Water

Reuse Filters in the Water Treatment System—

Case Analysis, Water (Basel). 15 (2023) 2452.

https://doi.org/10.3390/w15132452.

[18] A. Mika-Shalyha, J. Wyczarska-Kokot and A.

Lempart-Rapacewicz, Membrane filtration in

swimming pools – case study, INSTAL 9 (2024)

36-41. https://doi.org/10.36119/

15.2024.9.4.

[19] E. Burszta-Adamiak and P. Spychalski, Water

savings and reduction of costs through the use

of adual water supply system in asports facility,

Sustain Cities Soc. 66 (2021) 102620. https://

doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2020.102620.

[20] Directive 2000/60/EC of the European Par-

liament and of the Council of 23 October 2000

establishing aframework for Community action

in the field of water policy (2020).

[21] DIN 19643:2023 Treatment of water of swim-

ming pools and baths, Beuth-Verlag. Germany

2023 (in German).

[22] C. Sokołowski, Sanitary and Hygiene Require-

ments for Indoor Swimming Pools, Polish Asso-

ciation of Sanitary Engineers and Technicians,

Ministry of Health and Social Welfare, Depart-

ment of Public Health. Poland 1998 (in Polish).

[23] Decree of the Health Minister on the require-

ments for water in swimming pools, Journal of

Laws 2022, item 1230 (in Polish).

[24] N.K. Arora and I. Mishra, Sustainable develop-

ment goal 6: Global Water Security, Environmen-

tal Sustainability. 5 (2022) 271–275. https://

doi.org/10.1007/s42398-022-00246-5.

[25] I.S. Marinopoulos and K.L. Katsifarakis, Optimi-

zation of Energy and Water Management of

Swimming Pools. A Case Study in Thessaloniki,

Greece, Procedia Environ Sci. 38 (2017) 773–

780. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pro-

env.2017.03.161

[26] J. Wyczarska-Kokot and M. Dudziak, Reuse –

Reduce – Recycle: water and wastewater

management in swimming pool facilities, Desa-

lination Water Treat. 275 (2022) 69–80.

https://doi.org/10.5004/dwt.2022.28756.

[27] W. Kampel, Energy Efficiency in Swimming

Facilities, Doctoral theses at NTNU (Norwe-

gian University of Science and Technology),

Trondheim 2015. https://www.godeidrettsan-

legg.no/sites/default/files/bilder/PhD_Wol-

fgang_Kampel.pdf.

[28] A. Doménech-Sánchez, E. Laso and C.I. Berro-

cal, Water loss in swimming pool filter backwa-

shing processes in the Balearic Islands (Spain),

Water Policy. 23 (2021) 1314–1328. https://

doi.org/10.2166/wp.2021.217.

[29] M. Maglionico and I. Stojkov, Water consump-

tion in apublic swimming pool, Water Supply.

15 (2015) 1304–1311. https://doi.org/

10.2166/ws.2015.095.