1410/2025
www.
inf
o
rmacjain
s
tal
.
c
o
m
.
pl
Ź
r
ó
d
ł
a
c
i
ep
ł
a
i
e
n
e
r
g
ii
e
l
e
kt
r
yc
z
n
e
j
/
S
ou
rc
e
s
of
h
ea
t
a
n
d
e
l
e
ctr
i
c
i
ty
E
x
pe
ri
me
n
t
a
l
a
n
d
T
R
N
S
Y
S-
B
a
s
ed
Ev
a
l
u
a
t
i
on
of
PV
T
empe
r
a
t
u
r
e
Eff
e
cts
on
En
e
r
g
y
Ou
t
p
u
t
E
ks
pe
r
y
me
n
t
a
l
n
a
i
sy
m
u
l
a
cy
j
n
a
(
T
R
N
S
Y
S
)
o
c
e
n
a
w
p
ływ
u
t
empe
r
a
t
u
ry
m
o
d
u
ł
ó
w
fo
t
o
w
o
l
t
a
i
c
z
n
yc
h
n
a
u
z
ysk
e
n
e
r
g
ii
W
O
JC
I
E
CH
GO
R
Y
L,
M
A
C
I
E
J
Ż
O
Ł
ĄD
E
K,
DA
W
I
D
P
I
S
Z
C
Z
E
K
DO
I 10
.
36119/15
.
2025
.
10
.
2
Thi
s
s
tud
y
inve
s
tigate
s
the impact
o
f temperature
o
n the perf
o
rmance
o
f three ph
o
t
o
v
o
ltaic techn
o
l
o
gie
s
:
m
o
n
o
cr
y
s
talline, p
o
l
y
cr
y
s
talline, and am
o
rph
o
u
s
s
ilic
o
n
.
Lab
o
rat
o
r
y
te
s
t
s
w
ere c
o
nducted under t
wo
irradiance level
s
(500 and 830 W/m
2
) and temperature
s
ranging fr
o
m 30°C t
o
70°C
.
Ke
y
electrical parameter
s
w
ere mea
s
ured t
o
determine temperature c
o
efficient
s
.
T
R
NS
Y
S
s
imulati
o
n
s
ba
s
ed
o
n the e
x
perimental data
w
ere perf
o
rmed t
o
a
ss
e
ss
annual energ
y
y
ield
.
R
e
s
ult
s
s
h
ow
that m
o
n
o
cr
y
s
talline panel
s
have the highe
s
t efficienc
y
but are the m
o
s
t
s
en
s
itive t
o
temperature,
w
hile am
o
rph
o
u
s
panel
s
e
x
hibit greater thermal
s
tabilit
y
de
s
pite l
ow
er p
ow
er
o
utput
.
E
ffective c
oo
ling i
s
e
ss
ential t
o
maintain perf
o
rmance, e
s
peciall
y
in
w
arm climate
s
.
Ke
ywo
rd
s
:
s
o
lar energ
y
, ph
o
t
o
v
o
ltaic panel
s
, temperature c
o
efficient, d
y
namic
s
imulati
o
n, m
o
n
o
cr
y
s
talline,
p
o
l
y
cr
y
s
talline, am
o
rph
o
u
s
W niniej
s
z
ej prac
y
pr
z
eanali
z
ow
an
o
w
pł
yw
temperatur
y
na
wy
dajn
o
ś
ć tr
z
ech techn
o
l
o
gii f
o
t
owo
ltaic
z
n
y
ch
:
m
o
n
o
-
k
r
y
s
talic
z
nej, p
o
li
k
r
y
s
talic
z
nej
o
ra
z
am
o
rfic
z
nej
.
Te
s
t
y
lab
o
rat
o
r
y
jne pr
z
epr
ow
ad
z
o
n
o
pr
z
y
d
wó
ch p
o
z
i
o
mach natę-
ż
enia pr
o
mieni
ow
ania (500 i 830 W/m
2
)
o
ra
z
w
z
a
k
re
s
ie
w
art
o
ś
ci temperatur
y
o
d 30°C d
o
70°C
.
Z
mier
z
o
n
o
k
lu-
c
z
ow
e parametr
y
ele
k
tr
y
c
z
ne
w
celu
wy
z
nac
z
enia
w
s
p
ó
łc
z
y
nni
ków
temperatur
owy
ch
.
Na p
o
d
s
ta
w
ie dan
y
ch e
k
s
pe-
r
y
mentaln
y
ch
wyko
nan
o
s
y
mulacje
w
pr
o
gramie T
R
NS
Y
S, p
o
z
w
alające
o
s
z
ac
ow
ać r
o
c
z
n
y
u
z
y
s
k
energii
.
W
y
ni
k
i
wyk
a
z
ał
y
,
ż
e m
o
duł
y
m
o
n
ok
r
y
s
talic
z
ne chara
k
ter
y
z
ują
s
ię naj
wy
ż
s
z
ą
s
pra
w
n
o
ś
cią, lec
z
s
ą najbard
z
iej
w
ra
ż
li
w
e na
w
z
r
o
s
t temperatur
y
, p
o
dc
z
a
s
gd
y
m
o
duł
y
am
o
rfic
z
ne cechuje
w
ię
k
s
z
a
s
tabiln
o
ś
ć temperatur
ow
a, mim
o
ni
ż
s
z
ej m
o
c
y
wy
j
ś
ci
ow
ej
.
S
k
utec
z
ne chł
o
d
z
enie je
s
t
k
luc
z
ow
e dla utr
z
y
mania
wy
dajn
o
ś
ci,
s
z
c
z
eg
ó
lnie
w
ciepł
y
m
k
limacie
.
Sł
ow
a
k
luc
z
ow
e
:
energia pr
o
mieni
ow
ania
s
ł
o
nec
z
neg
o
, panele f
o
t
owo
ltaic
z
ne,
w
s
p
ó
łc
z
y
nni
k
temperatur
owy
,
s
y
mu-
lacja d
y
namic
z
na, m
o
n
ok
r
y
s
talic
z
n
y
, p
o
li
k
r
y
s
talic
z
n
y
, am
o
rfic
z
n
y
I
n
t
r
o
d
u
ct
i
on
The gr
ow
ing urgenc
y
t
o
tran
s
iti
o
n fr
o
m
f
o
ss
il fuel
s
t
o
rene
w
able energ
y
s
o
urce
s
ha
s
pr
o
pelled
s
o
lar p
ow
er int
o
the f
o
refr
o
nt
o
f
s
u
s
tainable energ
y
s
trategie
s
.
A
m
o
ng vari
o
u
s
s
o
lar energ
y
techn
o
l
o
gie
s
, ph
o
t
o
v
o
ltaic (PV)
s
y
s
tem
s
have garnered particular attenti
o
n
[
1
]
due t
o
their abilit
y
t
o
c
o
nvert
s
unlight di-
rectl
y
int
o
electricit
y
w
ith
o
ut mechanical c
o
m-
p
o
nent
s
, emi
ss
i
o
n
s
,
o
r
s
ignificant envir
o
nmen-
tal di
s
rupti
o
n
.
Thi
s
techn
o
l
o
g
y
ha
s
bec
o
me
increa
s
ingl
y
viable
ow
ing t
o
the falling c
o
s
t
o
f
PV panel
s
, ri
s
ing gl
o
bal inve
s
tment
s
, and
c
o
ntinu
o
u
s
impr
o
vement
s
in cell efficienc
y
[
2
].
H
ow
ever,
w
hile PV
s
y
s
tem
s
o
ffer pr
o
mi
s
ing
p
o
tential in decarb
o
ni
z
ing electricit
y
genera-
ti
o
n, their perf
o
rmance remain
s
highl
y
s
en
s
i-
tive t
o
envir
o
nmental c
o
nditi
o
n
s
, e
s
peciall
y
temperature
[
3
].
Unli
k
e irradiance,
w
hich
pr
o
vide
s
the energ
y
input f
o
r
s
o
lar c
o
nver-
s
i
o
n, temperature act
s
a
s
a perf
o
rmance-
m
o
dif
y
ing fact
o
r that
o
ften degrade
s
effi-
cienc
y
rather than enhancing it
.
The dual influ-
ence
o
f the
s
e parameter
s
, irradiance and
temperature, ma
k
e
s
c
o
mprehen
s
ive anal
y
s
i
s
e
ss
ential f
o
r b
o
th the de
s
ign and
o
perati
o
nal
o
ptimi
z
ati
o
n
o
f
s
o
lar in
s
tallati
o
n
s
[
4
].
Ph
o
t
o
v
o
ltaic
s
i
s
a
k
e
y
t
o
pic in c
o
ntemp
o
-
rar
y
energ
y
re
s
earch, driven b
y
climate g
o
al
s
and ri
s
ing electricit
y
price
s
.
I
n P
o
land, PV
h
o
ld
s
a d
o
minant p
o
s
iti
o
n am
o
ng rene
w
able
energ
y
s
o
urce
s
, c
o
mpri
s
ing 60
%
o
f in
s
talled
R
E
S capacit
y
a
s
o
f 2023
.
The pr
o
fitabilit
y
o
f
PV micr
o
-in
s
tallati
o
n
s
, e
s
peciall
y
in
s
ingle-
famil
y
h
o
u
s
e
s
, ha
s
been a f
o
cu
s
o
f recent
s
tudie
s
.
R
ecent anal
y
s
e
[
5
]
indicate that
w
hile
direct inve
s
tment in PV
s
y
s
tem
s
y
ield
s
s
ignifi-
cant l
o
ng-term
s
aving
s
, even greater benefit
s
ma
y
be achieved b
y
c
o
mbining PV in
s
tallati
o
n
w
ith reinve
s
tment
o
f the
s
aving
s
int
o
l
o
ng-term
fund
s
.
Such an integrated appr
o
ach nearl
y
d
o
uble
s
the
o
verall financial benefit
o
ver
a 30-
y
ear peri
o
d, dem
o
n
s
trating the c
o
mple
x
O
C
S
C
MPP
o
ptimi
z
ati
o
n p
o
ss
ible in h
o
u
s
eh
o
ld inve
s
tment
s
trategie
s
regarding rene
w
able energ
y.
A
particularl
y
critical challenge in PV
techn
o
l
o
g
y
i
s
the negative temperature c
o
ef-
ficient a
ss
o
ciated
w
ith the electrical charac-
teri
s
tic
s
o
f PV panel
s
.
A
s
temperature ri
s
e
s
,
the
o
pen-circuit v
o
ltage (V )
o
f a PV panel
t
y
picall
y
decrea
s
e
s
at a fa
s
ter rate than the
s
h
o
rt-circuit current (
I
) increa
s
e
s
, re
s
ulting
in an
o
verall dr
o
p in the p
ow
er in ma
x
imum
p
ow
er p
o
int (P)
[
6
].
Thi
s
effect can lead t
o
s
ub
s
tantial energ
y
y
ield l
o
ss
e
s
, e
s
peciall
y
in
climate
s
characteri
z
ed b
y
high ambient tem-
perature
s
o
r inten
s
e
s
o
lar radiati
o
n
.
A
cc
o
rd-
ing t
o
[
7
]
, an increa
s
e in ph
o
t
o
v
o
ltaic panel
temperature re
s
ult
s
in efficienc
y
l
o
ss
e
s
that
var
y
b
y
cell techn
o
l
o
g
y:
appr
o
x
imatel
y
0
.
4-
0
.
5
%
/°C f
o
r m
o
n
o
cr
y
s
talline and p
o
l
y
cr
y
s
-
talline
s
ilic
o
n, ar
o
und 1
.
1
%
/°C f
o
r am
o
r-
ph
o
u
s
s
ilic
o
n
.
The
s
e l
o
ss
e
s
are mainl
y
attrib-
uted t
o
temperature-induced reducti
o
n
s
in
o
pen-circuit v
o
ltage, ma
k
ing thermal effect
s
dr in
ż
.
W
o
jciech
G
o
r
y
l http
s
:
//
o
rcid
.o
rg/0000-0001-8683-6682, dr in
ż
.
M
aciej
Ż
o
łąde
k
http
s
:
//
o
rcid
.o
rg/0000-0001-8765-0345,
mgr in
ż
.
D
a
w
id Pi
s
z
c
z
e
k
‒
F
acult
y
o
f
E
nerg
y
and
F
uel
s
,
A
G
H Univer
s
it
y
o
f Science and Techn
o
l
o
g
y
, Kra
kow
, P
o
land
A
ut
o
r d
o
ko
re
s
p
o
ndencji/ C
o
rre
s
p
o
nding auth
o
r
:
w
g
o
r
y
l
@
agh
.
edu
.
pl
15
www.
inf
o
rmacjain
s
tal
.
c
o
m
.
pl
10/2025
Ź
r
ó
d
ł
a
c
i
ep
ł
a
i
e
n
e
r
g
ii
e
l
e
kt
r
yc
z
n
e
j
O
C
O
C
a critical fact
o
r in PV perf
o
rmance, e
s
pe-
ciall
y
in high-temperature envir
o
nment
s
.
Thi
s
highlight
s
the nece
ss
it
y
f
o
r targeted
s
tudie
s
inve
s
tigating h
ow
different PV techn
o
l
o
gie
s
,
s
uch a
s
m
o
n
o
cr
y
s
talline, p
o
l
y
cr
y
s
talline, and
am
o
rph
o
u
s
s
ilic
o
n, re
s
p
o
nd t
o
thermal
s
tre
ss
.
Under
s
tanding thi
s
thermal behavi
o
ur i
s
cru-
cial f
o
r
s
y
s
tem integrat
o
r
s
, de
s
igner
s
, and
p
o
lic
y
ma
k
er
s
aiming t
o
ma
x
imi
z
e energ
y
o
utput and en
s
ure c
o
s
t-effective depl
oy
ment
o
f PV infra
s
tructure in diver
s
e climate
z
o
ne
s
.
I
n recent
y
ear
s
, numer
o
u
s
s
cientific inve
s
-
tigati
o
n
s
have addre
ss
ed the impact
o
f tem-
perature
o
n ph
o
t
o
v
o
ltaic perf
o
rmance, lever-
aging b
o
th empirical data and
s
imulati
o
n
m
o
del
s
.
A
s
dem
o
n
s
trated b
y
[
8
]
, the
o
pen-
circuit v
o
ltage
o
f cr
y
s
talline
s
ilic
o
n
s
o
lar cell
s
decrea
s
e
s
s
ignificantl
y
w
ith increa
s
ing tem-
perature, c
o
ntributing t
o
o
verall p
ow
er l
o
ss
-
e
s
.
The e
x
perimental data
s
h
ow
that a
s
the
panel temperature ri
s
e
s
fr
o
m 25°C t
o
60°C,
Vdr
o
p
s
fr
o
m 42
.
18 V t
o
34
.
75 V, c
o
rre-
s
p
o
nding t
o
a p
ow
er l
o
ss
o
f appr
o
x
imatel
y
0
.
65
%
per degree Cel
s
iu
s
.
I
t
s
h
o
uld be n
o
ted that the temperature
o
f
ph
o
t
o
v
o
ltaic panel
s
i
s
cl
o
s
el
y
c
o
rrelated
w
ith
the inten
s
it
y
o
f
s
o
lar irradiance,
w
hich di-
rectl
y
affect
s
b
o
th the thermal l
o
ad
o
n the
panel and it
s
electrical perf
o
rmance
.
A
c-
c
o
rding t
o
[
9
]
, increa
s
ing the
s
urface tem-
perature
o
f PV panel
s
lead
s
t
o
a decrea
s
e in
o
pen-circuit v
o
ltage,
w
hich ha
s
a d
o
minant
effect in reducing the panel’
s
p
ow
er
o
utput
under elevated temperature c
o
nditi
o
n
s
.
F
o
r
e
x
ample, in lab
o
rat
o
r
y
te
s
t
s
w
ith
o
ut an
y
c
oo
ling, the V
o
f a 50 Wp panel dr
o
pped
fr
o
m 21
.
6 V at 298 K t
o
18
.
5 V at 349
.
1 K,
w
hile the p
ow
er
o
utput decrea
s
ed b
y
ap-
pr
o
x
imatel
y
12
%
during a 15-minute e
x
p
o
-
s
ure under 750 W/m
2
irradiance
.
The m
o
unting c
o
nfigurati
o
n
o
f a ph
o
t
o
-
v
o
ltaic in
s
tallati
o
n
s
ignificantl
y
influence
s
it
s
energ
y
y
ield, a
s
the in
s
tallati
o
n’
s
p
o
s
iti
o
ning
and
s
urr
o
unding envir
o
nment can affect b
o
th
temperature regulati
o
n and
s
o
lar irradiance
e
x
p
o
s
ure, thereb
y
impacting
o
verall
s
y
s
tem
perf
o
rmance
.
A
s
dem
o
n
s
trated b
y
[
10
]
, the
o
pen-circuit v
o
ltage
o
f cr
y
s
talline
s
ilic
o
n PV
panel
s
decrea
s
e
s
s
ignificantl
y
w
ith increa
s
-
ing temperature, appr
o
x
imatel
y
2
.
3 mV/°C,
w
hich re
s
ult
s
in a p
ow
er l
o
ss
o
f ar
o
und
0
.
4
%
/°C
.
Their e
x
perimental
s
tud
y
further
s
h
ow
ed that integrating vegetati
o
n int
o
r
oo
f-
ing
s
y
s
tem
s
(PV-green r
oo
f
s
) effectivel
y
re-
duce
s
panel temperature and enhance
s
elec-
trical perf
o
rmance,
w
ith the Sedum-ba
s
ed
c
o
nfigurati
o
n achieving up t
o
3
.
33
%
higher
p
ow
er
o
utput c
o
mpared t
o
a c
o
nventi
o
nal
gravel r
oo
f
.
C
oo
ling
o
f PV panel
s
i
s
e
ss
ential f
o
r
maintaining their efficienc
y
, a
s
elevated tem-
perature
s
can reduce the am
o
unt
o
f electric-
it
y
generated
.
A
nnual anal
y
s
i
s
[
11
]
o
f a 410
W PV panel in P
o
li
s
h c
o
nditi
o
n
s
s
h
ow
ed that
w
ith
o
ut c
oo
ling, cell temperature
s
reached
up t
o
57°C, re
s
ulting in l
ow
er c
o
nver
s
i
o
n
efficienc
y
and energ
y
o
utput
.
A
dding fin
s
t
o
the bac
k
o
f the panel dr
o
pped the ma
x
imum
temperature t
o
35
.
2°C and achieved a rela-
tive increa
s
e in
y
earl
y
electricit
y
pr
o
ducti
o
n
b
y
3
.
1
%
(f
o
r temperature c
o
efficient
–
0
.
34
%
/°C) and 4
.
6
%
(f
o
r
–
0
.
5
%
/°C)
.
I
n-
s
talling an air-ba
s
ed c
oo
ling
s
y
s
tem reduced
the ma
x
imum temperature t
o
41
.
2°C and in-
crea
s
ed
o
utput b
y
2
.
1
%
and 3
.
1
%
, re
s
pec-
tivel
y
, f
o
r the
s
ame c
o
efficient
s
.
C
oo
ling al
s
o
reduced thermal variati
o
n
s
,
w
hich ma
y
e
x
-
tend the PV panel life
s
pan and pr
o
vide even
greater l
o
ng-term benefit
s
E
nvir
o
nmental c
o
nditi
o
n
s
, particularl
y
temperature and
s
o
lar irradiance, have
a critical impact
o
n the electrical perf
o
r-
mance
o
f PV panel
s
, primaril
y
due t
o
reduc-ti
o
n
s
in
o
pen-circuit v
o
ltage at
elevated tem-perature
s
.
A
ctive air-c
oo
ling
s
y
s
tem
s
o
ffer a fea
s
ible mitigati
o
n appr
o
ach
.
A
pr
o
t
o
t
y
pe c
oo
ling
s
o
luti
o
n devel
o
ped at
A
G
H Univer-
s
it
y
o
f Kra
kow
[
12
]
,
empl
oy
ing air fan
s
m
o
unted
o
n the rear
o
f
a 70 Wp PV panel,
w
a
s
te
s
ted under
c
o
ntr
o
lled lab
o
rat
o
r
y
c
o
n-diti
o
n
s
(770
W/m
2
irradiance)
.
With
o
ut c
oo
ling, the
panel’
s
p
ow
er dr
o
pped t
o
40
.
09 W a
s
s
urface temperature reached 60 °C,
w
hile
the c
oo
led
s
y
s
tem achieved 44
.
37 W,
repre
s
enting a 10
.
7
%
gain
.
A
val-idated
A
NS
Y
S W
o
r
k
bench m
o
del
w
a
s
u
s
ed t
o
anal
y
s
e and
o
ptimi
z
e the fan c
o
nfigura-
ti
o
n
s
, identif
y
ing that a 7° vertical and 10°
h
o
ri
z
o
ntal tilt
y
ielded a c
o
s
t-effective im-
pr
o
vement
o
f appr
o
x
imatel
y
3
.
1
%
in net
p
ow
er
.
Thi
s
c
o
nfirm
s
that even l
ow
-c
o
s
t ac-
tive c
oo
ling meth
o
d
s
can be tail
o
red t
o
meaningfull
y
impr
o
ve PV efficienc
y
in practi-
cal applicati
o
n
s
.
Vari
o
u
s
h
y
brid
s
o
luti
o
n
s
have been e
x
-
pl
o
red t
o
reduce the
o
perating temperature
o
f PV panel
s
and impr
o
ve
o
verall
s
y
s
tem ef-
ficienc
y.
The
s
e include integrating PV panel
s
w
ith heat e
x
changer
s
, pha
s
e change materi-
al
s
,
o
r nan
o
fluid
s
t
o
rec
o
ver
w
a
s
te heat and
enhance c
oo
ling perf
o
rmance
.
R
ecent e
x
-
perimental re
s
earch
[
13
]
ha
s
dem
o
n
s
trated
that a dual-tan
k
c
o
nfigurati
o
n in ph
o
t
o
v
o
lta-
ic/thermal (PVT) c
o
llect
o
r
s
can
s
ignificantl
y
enhance perf
o
rmance
.
Under
o
utd
oo
r c
o
n-
diti
o
n
s
in
B
eijing, the
s
y
s
tem reduced the av-
erage cell temperature b
y
12
.
3 °C at
572 W/m
2
, increa
s
ing electrical efficienc
y
b
y
8
.
2
%
c
o
mpared t
o
a
s
tandard PV panel
.
I
nc
o
rp
o
rating a graphite-enhanced heat e
x
-
changer further rai
s
ed the average thermal
efficienc
y
t
o
34
.
41
%
, a 57
.
1
%
impr
o
vement
o
ver c
o
nventi
o
nal de
s
ign
s
.
A
dditi
o
nall
y
, u
s
-
ing the Whale
O
ptimi
z
ati
o
n
A
lg
o
rithm
(W
O
A
) t
o
adju
s
t tan
k
v
o
lume led t
o
a 5-20
%
increa
s
e in dail
y
energ
y
o
utput
.
A
n
o
ther pr
o
mi
s
ing appr
o
ach f
o
r reduc-
ing PV panel temperature inv
o
lve
s
c
o
upling
ph
o
t
o
v
o
ltaic
s
y
s
tem
s
w
ith pha
s
e change
material
s
(PC
Ms
), f
o
rming PV-PC
M
h
y
brid
s
tructure
s
.
The
s
e
s
y
s
tem
s
have been
s
h
ow
n t
o
impr
o
ve thermal regulati
o
n b
y
ab
s
o
rbing
e
x
ce
ss
heat during pea
k
s
o
lar h
o
ur
s
.
A
re-
cent T
R
NS
Y
S-ba
s
ed numerical and e
x
peri-
mental
s
tud
y
[
14
]
inve
s
tigated PV-PC
M
r
oo
f
s
acr
o
ss
vari
o
u
s
climatic regi
o
n
s
in China
.
The
finding
s
revealed that
o
ptimal PC
M
pha
s
e
change temperature
s
differ b
y
l
o
cati
o
n,
ranging fr
o
m 23 °C t
o
33 °C, cl
o
s
el
y
aligned
w
ith
o
utd
oo
r air temperature
s
.
The
o
ptimal PC
M
thic
k
ne
ss
w
a
s
t
y
picall
y
4 cm
.
D
epending
o
n the regi
o
n, the u
s
e
o
f PC
Ms
reduced PV bac
k
s
urface temperature b
y
up
t
o
21
.
5 °C and pea
k
heat flu
x
int
o
the build-
ing b
y
a
s
much a
s
26
.
5 W/m
2
.
N
o
tabl
y
,
w
hile increa
s
ing PC
M
thic
k
ne
ss
impr
o
ved
ind
oo
r thermal c
o
mf
o
rt, it had minimal effect
o
n PV panel temperature, under
s
c
o
ring the
imp
o
rtance
o
f preci
s
e PC
M
temperature
s
e-
lecti
o
n in h
y
brid
s
o
lar applicati
o
n
s
.
I
n additi
o
n t
o
PC
M
and dual-tan
k
ap-
pr
o
ache
s
,
o
ptical and
s
tructural enhance-
ment
s
pla
y
a critical r
o
le in impr
o
ving PV/T
s
y
s
tem perf
o
rmance
.
O
ne
s
uch
s
trateg
y
[
15
]
inv
o
lve
s
the u
s
e
o
f beam-
s
plitting c
o
ncentra-
t
o
r
s
c
o
upled
w
ith nan
o
fluid
s
.
U
s
ing a full
y
c
o
upled
o
ptical-thermal-electrical m
o
del, the
s
y
s
tem
w
a
s
evaluated thr
o
ugh di
s
crete
o
rdi-
nate
s
radiati
o
n m
o
delling, validated again
s
t
M
o
nte Carl
o
R
a
y
Tracing re
s
ult
s
.
The integrat-
ed
s
y
s
tem,
o
perating
w
ith nan
o
fluid
s
at 25 °C
and a fl
ow
rate
o
f 0
.
03
k
g/
s
, achieved an
electrical efficienc
y
o
f 22
.
13
%
, thermal effi-
cienc
y
o
f 71
.
85
%
, and e
x
erg
y
efficienc
y
o
f
20
.
77
%
.
M
o
re
o
ver, c
o
mparative anal
y
s
i
s
re-
vealed that
s
erie
s
c
o
nfigurati
o
n
s
enhanced
e
x
erg
y
efficienc
y
,
w
hile parallel arrangement
s
fav
o
ured thermal perf
o
rmance
.
The
s
e re
s
ult
s
highlight the effectivene
ss
o
f beam-
s
plitting
and
s
pectral management
s
trategie
s
in achiev-
ing high-perf
o
rmance PV/T
o
perati
o
n under
c
o
ncentrated
s
o
lar input
.
A
m
o
ng the
s
impler
y
et effective thermal
management
s
trategie
s
f
o
r PV
s
y
s
tem
s
, f
o
rced
w
ater c
oo
ling u
s
ing a heat e
x
changer ha
s
pr
o
ven t
o
be a practical
s
o
luti
o
n, particularl
y
in large-
s
cale applicati
o
n
s
.
I
n an e
x
perimental
and
s
imulati
o
n
s
tud
y
[
16
]
c
o
nducted in Jera
s
h,
J
o
rdan, a c
o
pper pipe heat e
x
changer
w
a
s
attached t
o
the bac
k
o
f a PV panel and c
o
m-
bined
w
ith f
o
rced
w
ater circulati
o
n
.
C
o
m-
pared t
o
an unc
oo
led reference panel, thi
s
s
etup achieved an average temperature re-
ducti
o
n
o
f 4
.
62 °C, re
s
ulting in an 8
.
08
%
in-
crea
s
e in electrical p
ow
er
o
utput and an effi-
cienc
y
o
f 10
.
41
%
.
O
ver
s
i
x
c
o
n
s
ecutive da
y
s
,
the c
oo
led panel generated 377 Wh m
o
re
electricit
y
,
w
ith T
R
NS
Y
S
s
imulati
o
n
s
c
o
nfirming
the e
x
perimental trend
.
The
s
y
s
tem’
s
s
implicit
y
,
1610/2025
www.
inf
o
rmacjain
s
tal
.
c
o
m
.
pl
Ź
T
MPP
MPP
MPP
characteri
z
ed b
y
a higher
I
and a higher
V
.
I
n c
o
ntra
s
t, the p
o
l
y
cr
y
s
talline panel
e
x
hibit
s
a higher
I
a
s
w
ell a
s
a higher
s
h
o
rt-circuit current
.
While the m
o
n
o
cr
y
s
talline and p
o
l
y
cr
y
s
-
talline panel
s
have c
o
mparable
s
urface ar-
ea
s
, the am
o
rph
o
u
s
panel feature
s
a
s
ignifi-
cantl
y
larger
s
urface area
.
T
o
en
s
ure c
o
n
s
i
s
-
tenc
y
and c
o
mparabilit
y
o
f the re
s
ult
s
, the
mea
s
ured p
ow
er gain
s
w
ere n
o
rmali
z
ed t
o
a unit area
o
f 1 m
2
.
The e
x
perimental te
s
t
s
w
ere c
o
nducted
under t
wo
di
s
tinct irradiance level
s
generat-
ed b
y
a hal
o
gen lamp p
o
s
iti
o
ned perpen-
dicularl
y
t
o
the active
s
urface
o
f the PV pan-
el
s
.
The irradiance inten
s
it
y
w
a
s
c
o
ntr
o
lled b
y
adju
s
ting the di
s
tance bet
w
een the panel
and the light
s
o
urce, all
ow
ing f
o
r preci
s
e
regulati
o
n
o
f the radiati
o
n incident
o
n the PV
panel
s
urface
.
A
s
a re
s
ult
o
f the mea
s
ure-
ment
s
, the average irradiance
o
n the
s
urface
o
f each panel
w
a
s
determined,
y
ielding the
f
o
ll
ow
ing value
s
:
l
500 W/m
2
l
830 W/m
2
The
s
electi
o
n
o
f the
s
e t
wo
irradiance
level
s
w
a
s
m
o
tivated b
y
the need t
o
anal
y
z
e
the perf
o
rmance
o
f PV panel
s
under var
y
ing
s
imulated
s
unlight c
o
nditi
o
n
s
.
I
n practical ap-
plicati
o
n
s
, PV panel
s
are e
x
p
o
s
ed t
o
fluctuat-
ing
s
o
lar irradiance due t
o
change
s
in
w
eath-
er c
o
nditi
o
n
s
, the angle
o
f incidence
o
f
s
un-
light, and atm
o
s
pheric fact
o
r
s
.
Theref
o
re, it i
s
e
ss
ential t
o
inve
s
tigate h
ow
different irradi-
ance inten
s
itie
s
affect the electrical
parame-ter
s
and
o
verall efficienc
y
o
f the
panel
s
.
B
y
e
x
amining PV panel perf
o
rmance at
b
o
th m
o
derate (500 W/m
2
) and higher ir-
radiance level
s
(830 W/m
2
), the
s
tud
y
aim
s
t
o
gain in
s
ight
s
int
o
the thermal and electrical
behavi
o
r
o
f vari
o
u
s
PV techn
o
l
o
gie
s
.
Thi
s
ap-
pr
o
ach n
o
t
o
nl
y
reflect
s
real-
wo
rld
o
perating
c
o
nditi
o
n
s
but al
s
o
help
s
t
o
determine the
temperature
s
en
s
itivit
y
and efficienc
y
varia-
ti
o
n
s
under diver
s
e envir
o
nmental
s
cenari
o
s
.
Table 2 pre
s
ent
s
an
o
vervie
w
o
f the mea-
s
urement
s
erie
s
c
o
nducted under different ir-
radiance level
s
.
The table pr
o
vide
s
a de-
tailed e
x
planati
o
n
o
f the e
x
perimental c
o
ndi-
ti
o
n
s
and the
s
pecific irradiance value
s
ap-
plied during each
s
erie
s
.
D
uring the e
x
perimental mea
s
urement
s
,
the rear
s
urface temperature
o
f each PV pan-
el
w
a
s
c
o
ntinu
o
u
s
l
y
m
o
nit
o
red u
s
ing f
o
ur
therm
o
c
o
uple
s
attached t
o
the rear
s
ide
o
f
the PV panel
.
The therm
o
c
o
uple
s
w
ere
s
trate-
gicall
y
p
o
s
iti
o
ned at a di
s
tance
o
f 7 cm fr
o
m
the c
o
rner
s
o
f each panel t
o
en
s
ure accurate
and repre
s
entative temperature reading
s
acr
o
ss
the rear panel
s
urface
.
The cur-
rent-v
o
ltage (
I
-V) characteri
s
tic
s
o
f the PV
panel
s
w
ere a
ss
e
ss
ed at five di
s
tinct temper-
ature
s
:
30°C, 40°C, 50°C, 60°C, and
T
y
pe
o
f panel
P
m
a
x
[
W
p
]
V
M
PP
[
V
]
I
M
PP
[A]
V
O
C
[
V
]
I
S
C
[A]
Surface
[
m
2
]
M
o
n
o
cr
y
s
talline10 18 0
.
55 21
.
6 0
.
61 0
.
065
P
o
l
y
cr
y
s
talline1016
.
80
.
6210
.
680
.
0675
A
m
o
rph
o
u
s
617
.
50
.
342210
.
450
.
1465
F
i
g
u
r
e
1
.
c
o
s
t-effectivene
ss
, and abilit
y
t
o
enhance b
o
th
m
A
Z
8852
:
A
temperature meter
w
ith
pr
o
ductivit
y
and panel life
s
pan ma
k
e it a via- a mea
s
uring range fr
o
m
–
200°C t
o
ble meth
o
d f
o
r PV perf
o
rmance enhancement 1370°C, featuring an accurac
y
o
f
in
w
arm climate
s
.
±
0
.
1
%
and a re
s
o
luti
o
n
o
f 0
.
1°C
.
Thi
s
s
tud
y
c
o
mbine
s
e
x
perimental anal
y
s
i
s
o
Temperature Sen
s
o
r
s
:
F
o
ur t
y
pe K ther-
w
ith numerical
s
imulati
o
n t
o
inve
s
tigate the im- m
o
c
o
uple
s
w
ith a mea
s
uring range fr
o
m
pact
o
f temperature
o
n the perf
o
rmance
o
f
–
50°C t
o
250°C,
o
ffering an accurac
y
three ph
o
t
o
v
o
ltaic techn
o
l
o
gie
s
:
m
o
n
o
cr
y
s
tal-
o
f
±
0
.
5°C
.
The
s
e
s
en
s
o
r
s
are crucial f
o
r
line, p
o
l
y
cr
y
s
talline, and am
o
rph
o
u
s
s
ilic
o
n
.
preci
s
e temperature m
o
nit
o
ring during
Lab
o
rat
o
r
y
te
s
t
s
w
ere c
o
nducted under t
wo
ir- the e
x
periment
s
.
radiance level
s
(500 W/m
2
and 830 W/m
2
)
o
E
lectr
o
nic L
o
ad (
A
rra
y
3711
A
)
:
and a temperature range
o
f 30°C t
o
70°C
.
m
P
ow
er range
:
0 t
o
400 W (accura-
Ke
y
electrical parameter
s
,
s
uch a
s
current, v
o
lt- c
y:
0
.
1
%
+
600 mW)
age, p
ow
er
o
utput, and efficienc
y
w
ere mea-
m
Current range
:
0 t
o
40
A
(accurac
y:
s
ured, all
ow
ing the determinati
o
n
o
f tempera- 0
.
05
%
+
8 m
A
)
ture c
o
efficient
s
(
α
,
β
,
γ
) f
o
r each panel t
y
pe
.
m
V
o
ltage range
:
0 t
o
80 V (accurac
y:
The
s
ec
o
nd part
o
f the
wo
r
k
inv
o
lve
s
d
y
namic 0
.
1
%
+
8 mV)
s
imulati
o
n
s
u
s
ing T
R
NS
Y
S
s
o
ft
w
are t
o
m
o
delhi
s
l
o
ad device en
s
ure
s
accurate
annual energ
y
y
ield under reali
s
tic climate
s
imulati
o
n
o
f
o
perati
o
nal c
o
nditi
o
n
s
c
o
nditi
o
n
s
.
Thi
s
s
imulati
o
n u
s
e
s
the e
x
perimen- f
o
r PV panel
s
.
tal data a
s
input
s
and help
s
a
ss
e
ss
s
ea
s
o
nal
o
I
n
s
o
lati
o
n
M
eter (
B
enning SUN 2)
:
A
n
and l
o
ng-term perf
o
rmance variati
o
n
s
.
A
re- in
s
trument f
o
r mea
s
uring
s
o
lar irradiance
gre
ss
i
o
n-ba
s
ed p
ow
er predicti
o
n m
o
del i
s
al
s
o
w
ith a range fr
o
m 100 t
o
1250 W/m
2
pr
o
p
o
s
ed, lin
k
ing irradiance and temperature
±
5
%
, e
ss
ential f
o
r a
ss
e
ss
ing the incident
t
o
o
utput p
ow
er
.
The
s
tud
y
c
o
nclude
s
w
ith de-
s
o
lar p
ow
er
.
s
ign rec
o
mmendati
o
n
s
ba
s
ed
o
n c
o
mparative
o
M
ultimeter
s
:
thermal perf
o
rmance,
o
ffering practical guid-
m
AX
I
OME
T
AX
-594
:
A
current meter
ance f
o
r PV
s
y
s
tem
o
ptimi
z
ati
o
n in var
y
ing
w
ith an accurac
y
o
f
±
1
%
.
envir
o
nment
s
.
m
V
&A
I
n
s
trument V
A
20C
:
A
v
o
ltage
meter
w
ith an accurac
y
o
f
±
0
.
7
%
+
M
a
t
h
e
ri
a
l
s
a
n
d
me
t
ho
d
s
2V
.
o
Cable Set
:
A
s
et
o
f cable
s
nece
ss
ar
y
f
o
r
The e
x
perimental
s
etup
w
a
s
de
s
igned t
o
c
o
nnecting the vari
o
u
s
c
o
mp
o
nent
s
and
evaluate the energ
y
y
ield
o
f vari
o
u
s
t
y
pe
s
o
fen
s
uring
s
table and reliable data acqui-
PV panel
s
under diver
s
e
o
perating c
o
ndi-
s
iti
o
n
.
ti
o
n
s
.
The mea
s
uring
s
tand c
o
mpri
s
ed PVThe general c
o
nfigurati
o
n
o
f the e
x
peri-
panel
s
, a
s
w
ell a
s
mea
s
urement and electric- mental
s
tand, including the arrangement
o
f
it
y
recepti
o
n
s
y
s
tem
s
.
The entire
s
etup
w
a
s
ph
o
t
o
v
o
ltaic panel
s
and mea
s
urement
equipped
w
ith the f
o
ll
ow
ing c
o
mp
o
nent
s
:
equipment, i
s
pre
s
ented in
F
igure 1
.
o
three ph
o
t
o
v
o
ltaic panel
s
(parameter
s
given in Table 1)
:
m
m
o
n
o
cr
y
s
talline
–
Singf
o
S
o
lar
S
FM
-10,
m
p
o
l
y
cr
y
s
talline
–
A
cti
o
n
E
nerg
y
A
EMF
010,
m
am
o
rph
o
u
s
–
Co
nrad
E
lectri
o
nic
TPS-103,
o
Light S
o
urce
:
A
hal
o
gen lamp
w
ith
a p
ow
er rating
o
f 500 W, pr
o
viding
a
s
table and c
o
n
s
i
s
tent illuminati
o
n f
o
r
te
s
ting purp
o
s
e
s
.
T
h
e
ge
n
e
r
a
l
v
i
e
w
of
t
h
e
e
x
pe
r
i
me
n
t
a
l
st
a
n
d
w
i
t
h
o
Temperature
M
eter
s
:
p
o
l
ycryst
a
lli
n
e
PV
pa
n
e
l
m
T
E
S-1307
:
A
high-preci
s
i
o
n tempera-
ture meter
w
ith a mea
s
uring rangeThe parameter
s
o
f the ph
o
t
o
v
o
ltaic pan-
fr
o
m
–
190°C t
o
1333°C
.
The accu- el
s
u
s
ed in the e
x
periment are pre
s
ented in
rac
y
w
ithin the range
o
f 0-1000°C i
s
Table 1
.
B
o
th the m
o
n
o
cr
y
s
talline and p
o
l
y
-
0
.
1
%
+
0
.
5°C,
w
ith a re
s
o
luti
o
n
o
f cr
y
s
talline panel
s
have a n
o
minal p
ow
er
0
.
1°C
.
rating
o
f 10 Wp
.
The m
o
n
o
cr
y
s
talline panel i
s
T
ab
l
e
1
.
PV
pa
n
e
l
s t
e
c
hn
i
c
a
l
pa
r
ame
t
e
rs
u
s
ed
i
n
e
x
pe
r
i
me
n
t
a
l
t
e
sts
17
www.
inf
o
rmacjain
s
tal
.
c
o
m
.
pl
10/2025
Ź
r
ó
d
ł
a
c
i
ep
ł
a
i
e
n
e
r
g
ii
e
l
e
kt
r
yc
z
n
e
j
70°C
.
T
o
achieve the de
s
ired temperature
level
s
, the panel
s
w
ere heated u
s
ing a hal
o
-
gen lamp, The current-v
o
ltage characteri
s
tic
mea
s
urement
s
w
ere initiated
o
nce the aver-
age rear
s
urface temperature
o
f the panel
s
tabili
z
ed and reached the predetermined
target value
.
Thi
s
appr
o
ach en
s
ured that the
temperature c
o
nditi
o
n
s
w
ere c
o
n
s
i
s
tent and
accurate thr
o
ugh
o
ut the te
s
ting pr
o
ce
ss
.
I
n thi
s
s
tud
y
, all temperature value
s
u
s
ed
in the anal
y
s
i
s
refer t
o
the average rear
s
ur-
face temperature
o
f the PV panel, deter-
mined a
s
the mean value fr
o
m f
o
ur therm
o
-
c
o
uple
s
placed
s
y
mmetricall
y
o
n the bac
k
s
ide
o
f each panel
.
Theref
o
re, the pre
s
ented
re
s
ult
s
s
h
o
uld be interpreted in the c
o
nte
x
t
o
f
s
urface temperature effect
s
o
n electrical pa-
rameter
s
, rather than a
s
an anal
y
s
i
s
o
f inter-
nal cell-level temperature
s
.
[
W/m
2
]
T
ab
l
e
2
.
E
x
p
l
a
n
a
t
i
on
of
mea
s
u
r
eme
n
t s
e
r
i
e
s
T
y
pe
o
f panel
I
rradiance
Serie
s
M
o
n
o
cr
y
s
talline
P
o
l
y
cr
y
s
talline
A
m
o
rph
o
u
s
500
M
o
n
o
cr
y
s
talline-500
830
M
o
n
o
cr
y
s
talline-830
500 P
o
l
y
c
y
s
talline-500
830 P
o
l
y
cr
y
s
talline-830
500
A
m
o
rph
o
u
s
-500
830
A
m
o
rph
o
u
s
-830
I
t
s
h
o
uld be n
o
ted that the e
x
perimental
s
etup repre
s
ent
s
a
s
implified m
o
del
o
f real-
wo
rld PV
o
perating c
o
nditi
o
n
s
.
The u
s
e
o
f
a hal
o
gen lamp a
s
b
o
th a heat and irradiance
s
o
urce enabled c
o
ntr
o
lled and repeatable
heating
o
f the PV panel
s
but d
o
e
s
n
o
t full
y
replicate d
y
namic
o
utd
oo
r fact
o
r
s
s
uch a
s
w
ind-induced c
oo
ling, variable irradiance,
o
r
envir
o
nmental c
o
nvecti
o
n
.
D
e
s
pite the
s
e
s
im-
plificati
o
n
s
, the lab
o
rat
o
r
y
c
o
nditi
o
n
s
en
s
ured
high preci
s
i
o
n in thermal and electrical mea-
s
urement
s
,
w
hich
w
a
s
e
ss
ential f
o
r i
s
o
lating the
temperature effect
s
o
n PV perf
o
rmance
.
The u
s
e
o
f multiple temperature p
o
int
s
all
ow
s
f
o
r a c
o
mprehen
s
ive anal
y
s
i
s
o
f h
ow
temperature variati
o
n
s
influence the efficien-
c
y
and p
ow
er
o
utput
o
f the PV panel
s
,
o
ffer-
ing valuable in
s
ight
s
int
o
the thermal behav-
i
o
ur and perf
o
rmance
s
tabilit
y
under
s
imu-
lated
o
perati
o
nal c
o
nditi
o
n
s
.
The current-v
o
ltage characteri
s
tic mea-
s
urement inv
o
lved
s
etting a
s
pecific current
value
o
n the electr
o
nic l
o
ad,
o
perating in
c
o
n
s
tant current m
o
de
.
Thi
s
appr
o
ach en-
s
ured preci
s
e c
o
ntr
o
l
o
ver the current fl
ow
ing
thr
o
ugh the ph
o
t
o
v
o
ltaic panel during te
s
ting
.
The c
o
rre
s
p
o
nding current and v
o
ltage value
s
w
ere mea
s
ured u
s
ing electrical multimeter
s
.
R
e
s
u
l
ts
a
n
d
d
i
scc
u
s
i
on
The f
o
ll
ow
ing chapter pre
s
ent
s
the re
s
ult
s
o
f e
x
perimental re
s
earch c
o
nducted
o
n PV
panel
s
under var
y
ing
o
perating tempera-
ture
s
and irradiance level
s
.
The primar
y
o
b-
jective
o
f the
s
e e
x
periment
s
w
a
s
t
o
inve
s
ti-
gate the influence
o
f temperature fluctuati
o
n
s
and differing irradiance inten
s
itie
s
o
n the
perf
o
rmance characteri
s
tic
s
o
f vari
o
u
s
t
y
pe
s
o
f PV panel
s
.
The
o
btained re
s
ult
s
pr
o
vide
valuable in
s
ight
s
int
o
the thermal and electri-
cal behavi
o
ur
o
f PV panel
s
,
w
hich i
s
critical
f
o
r
o
ptimi
z
ing their efficienc
y
in real-
wo
rld
applicati
o
n
s
.
The e
x
periment
s
w
ere de
s
igned t
o
repli-
cate practical c
o
nditi
o
n
s
in
w
hich PV
s
y
s
tem
s
o
perate, including variati
o
n
s
in
s
o
lar irradi-
ance and temperature that t
y
picall
y
o
ccur due
t
o
changing envir
o
nmental fact
o
r
s
.
T
o
en
s
ure
the reliabilit
y
o
f the re
s
ult
s
, the mea
s
urement
s
w
ere perf
o
rmed u
s
ing a
s
tandardi
z
ed
s
etup,
a
s
de
s
cribed in previ
o
u
s
s
ecti
o
n
s
,
w
ith accu-
rate c
o
ntr
o
l
o
ver temperature and irradiance
c
o
nditi
o
n
s
.
The PV panel
s
te
s
ted included
m
o
n
o
cr
y
s
talline, p
o
l
y
cr
y
s
talline, and am
o
r-
ph
o
u
s
t
y
pe
s
, each characteri
z
ed b
y
di
s
tinct
s
tructural and material pr
o
pertie
s
,
w
hich
w
ere
e
x
pected t
o
influence their re
s
p
o
n
s
e t
o
tem-
perature and irradiance change
s
.
The re
s
ult
s
pre
s
ented in thi
s
chapter en-
c
o
mpa
ss
k
e
y
perf
o
rmance parameter
s
s
uch
a
s
v
o
ltage, current, p
ow
er
o
utput, and effi-
cienc
y
at
s
pecified temperature
s
(30°C,
40°C, 50°C, 60°C, and 70°C) and irradi-
ance level
s
(500 W/m
2
and 830 W/m
2
)
.
The data
w
ere c
o
llected thr
o
ugh
s
y
s
tematic
e
x
perimentati
o
n and
w
ere carefull
y
anal-
y
s
ed t
o
a
ss
e
ss
the c
o
rrelati
o
n bet
w
een tem-
perature increa
s
e and the decline in p
ow
er
o
utput,
w
hich i
s
a
w
ell-d
o
cumented phen
o
m-
en
o
n in PV techn
o
l
o
g
y.
E
l
e
ct
ri
c
a
l
c
h
a
r
a
ct
e
ri
st
i
cs
The f
o
ll
ow
ing
s
ub
s
ecti
o
n pre
s
ent
s
the e
x
-
perimental re
s
ult
s
o
f current-v
o
ltage (
I
-V) and
p
ow
er-v
o
ltage (P-V) characteri
s
tic
s
o
btained
fr
o
m a m
o
n
o
cr
y
s
talline ph
o
t
o
v
o
ltaic (PV)
panel
.
The mea
s
urement
s
w
ere c
o
nducted
under t
wo
irradiance level
s
:
500 W/m
2
and
830 W/m
2
,
s
imulating m
o
derate and high
s
o
lar radiati
o
n c
o
nditi
o
n
s
, re
s
pectivel
y.
F
o
r
each irradiance level, the
I
-V and P-V curve
s
w
ere rec
o
rded at five di
s
tinct average rear
s
urface temperature
s
o
f the PV panel
:
30°C,
40°C, 50°C, 60°C, and 70°C
.
The curve
s
pre
s
ented in the current-v
o
ltage (
I
-V) and
p
ow
er-v
o
ltage (P-V) characteri
s
tic pl
o
t
s
w
ere
o
btained ba
s
ed
o
n e
x
perimental data and
s
ub
s
equentl
y
appr
o
x
imated u
s
ing curve fitting
meth
o
d
s
t
o
facilitate anal
y
s
i
s
and enhance the
clarit
y
o
f the trend
s
.
The fir
s
t t
wo
graph
s
(
F
igure
s
2a and 2b)
repre
s
ent the current-v
o
ltage (
I
-V) and p
ow
er-
v
o
ltage (P-V) characteri
s
tic
s
o
f the m
o
n
o
cr
y
s
-
talline PV panel mea
s
ured at an irradiance
o
f
500 W/m
2
.
A
s
the temperature
o
f the PV
panel increa
s
e
s
, a n
o
ticeable decrea
s
e in the
o
pen-circuit v
o
ltage i
s
o
b
s
erved
.
The
I
-V char-
acteri
s
tic curve
s
s
hift t
o
the left
w
ith increa
s
ing
temperature, indicating a reducti
o
n in v
o
ltage
.
Thi
s
behavi
o
r can be attributed t
o
the in-
crea
s
ed charge carrier rec
o
mbinati
o
n
o
ccur-
ring at elevated temperature
s
,
w
hich reduce
s
the p
o
tential difference acr
o
ss
the cell
.
The
s
h
o
rt-circuit current
s
h
ow
s
a
s
light increa
s
e
w
ith ri
s
ing temperature,
w
hich can be e
x
-
plained b
y
enhanced thermal generati
o
n
o
f
charge carrier
s
.
H
ow
ever, thi
s
increa
s
e in cur-
rent i
s
n
o
t
s
ufficient t
o
c
o
unterbalance the
v
o
ltage dr
o
p, leading t
o
a reducti
o
n in the
ma
x
imum p
ow
er p
o
int
.
C
o
n
s
equentl
y
, the
ma
x
imum p
ow
er
o
utput
o
f the PV panel de-
crea
s
e
s
a
s
the average rear
s
urface tempera-
ture ri
s
e
s
, dem
o
n
s
trating the negative impact
o
f thermal c
o
nditi
o
n
s
o
n PV efficienc
y.
The c
o
rre
s
p
o
nding P-V curve
s
al
s
o
c
o
n-
firm thi
s
trend
.
A
t l
ow
er temperature
s
, the
pea
k
p
ow
er
o
utput
o
ccur
s
at higher v
o
ltage
F
i
g
u
r
e
2
.
C
u
rr
e
n
t
-
vo
l
t
age
(
l
e
f
t
–
a
)
a
n
d
p
o
w
e
r
-
vo
l
-
t
age
(
ri
g
h
t –
b
)
c
h
a
-
r
a
ct
e
ri
st
i
cs –
Mono
-
cryst
a
lli
n
e
-
500
1810/2025
www.
inf
o
rmacjain
s
tal
.
c
o
m
.
pl
Ź
S
C
value
s
,
w
hile a
s
the temperature increa
s
e
s
,
the p
ow
er pea
k
s
hift
s
t
ow
ard
s
l
ow
er v
o
ltage
value
s
.
Thi
s
indicate
s
a
s
ignificant decline in
the p
ow
er generati
o
n capacit
y
o
f the PV
panel at elevated temperature
s
.
The p
ow
er
curve
s
bec
o
me n
o
ticeabl
y
flatter a
s
tempera-
ture
o
f rear
s
ide
o
f PV panel ri
s
e
s
, indicating
reduced p
ow
er
o
utput efficienc
y.
The ne
x
t t
wo
graph
s
(
F
igure
s
3a and 3b)
depict the
I
-V and P-V characteri
s
tic
s
mea-
s
ured at a higher irradiance level
o
f 830 W/
m
2
.
A
s
in the previ
o
u
s
ca
s
e, an increa
s
e in
average rear
s
urface temperature lead
s
t
o
a
s
ignificant decrea
s
e in the
o
pen-circuit v
o
lt-
age
.
H
ow
ever, at thi
s
higher irradiance, the
s
h
o
rt-circuit current value
s
are n
o
ticeabl
y
high-
er than th
o
s
e rec
o
rded at 500 W/m
2
, reflect-
ing the increa
s
ed
s
o
lar energ
y
input
.
Similar t
o
the previ
o
u
s
s
et
o
f characteri
s
tic
s
, the
I
s
h
ow
s
a
s
light up
w
ard trend
w
ith temperature,
but the v
o
ltage dr
o
p remain
s
the pred
o
minant
fact
o
r affecting the p
ow
er
o
utput
.
The P-V characteri
s
tic
s
f
o
r the 830 W/m
2
irradiance level further highlight the tempera-
ture-dependent decline in ma
x
imum p
ow
er
o
utput
.
The p
ow
er pea
k
s
at higher irradiance
are
s
ignificantl
y
greater c
o
mpared t
o
the 500
W/m
2
ca
s
e, but the decrea
s
e in p
ow
er
w
ith
increa
s
ing average rear
s
urface temperature
remain
s
evident
.
The higher irradiance im-
pr
o
ve
s
current generati
o
n, but the
o
verall
p
ow
er
o
utput i
s
s
till negativel
y
impacted b
y
the temperature ri
s
e
.
When c
o
mparing the
I
-V and P-V charac-
teri
s
tic
s
bet
w
een the t
wo
irradiance level
s
, it i
s
evident that higher irradiance
s
ignificantl
y
in-
crea
s
e
s
the current value
s
, a
s
e
x
pected due t
o
the greater incident
s
o
lar energ
y.
H
ow
ever,
the temperature-induced decline in v
o
ltage
remain
s
c
o
n
s
i
s
tent acr
o
ss
b
o
th irradiance c
o
n-
diti
o
n
s
.
Thi
s
indicate
s
that
w
hile increa
s
ed ir-
radiance enhance
s
current generati
o
n, it d
o
e
s
n
o
t mitigate the v
o
ltage l
o
ss
cau
s
ed b
y
aver-
age rear
s
urface temperature ri
s
e
.
A
s
a re
s
ult,
the
o
verall p
ow
er
o
utput
o
f the PV panel i
s
s
ignificantl
y
affected b
y
temperature, regard-
le
ss
o
f the irradiance level
.
The e
x
perimental re
s
ult
s
clearl
y
dem
o
n-
s
trate that average rear
s
urface temperature
ri
s
e negativel
y
impact
s
the perf
o
rmance
o
f
O
C
S
C
MPP
MPP
MPP
MPP
m
o
n
o
cr
y
s
talline PV panel
s
, primaril
y
thr
o
ugh a
s
imilar but
s
lightl
y
le
ss
pr
o
n
o
unced decrea
s
e
a reducti
o
n in the
o
pen-circuit v
o
ltage
.
A
l- in P , fr
o
m 4
.
1 W at 30°C t
o
3
.
7 W at
th
o
ugh the
s
h
o
rt-circuit current
s
h
ow
s
a min
o
r 70°C, c
o
rre
s
p
o
nding t
o
an
o
verall reducti
o
n
increa
s
e
w
ith temperature, it i
s
n
o
t
s
ufficient t
o
o
f ar
o
und 9
.
8
%
.
The percentage change be-
o
ff
s
et the v
o
ltage decrea
s
e
.
C
o
n
s
equentl
y
, t
w
een temperature increment
s
varie
s
bet
w
een
the ma
x
imum p
ow
er
o
utput decrea
s
e
s
s
ig-
–
2
.
44
%
and
–
2
.
63
%
, indicating that p
o
l
y
-
nificantl
y
a
s
the temperature ri
s
e
s
, and thi
s
cr
y
s
talline panel
s
are marginall
y
le
ss
s
en
s
itive
effect i
s
c
o
n
s
i
s
tent acr
o
ss
b
o
th irradiance t
o
average rear
s
urface temperature change
s
level
s
.
The
s
e finding
s
empha
s
i
z
e the imp
o
r- c
o
mpared t
o
m
o
n
o
cr
y
s
talline panel
s
.
P
o
l
y
-
tance
o
f thermal management in ph
o
t
o
v
o
l- cr
y
s
talline PV panel
s
are le
ss
s
en
s
itive t
o
tem-taic applicati
o
n
s
, e
s
peciall
y
in envir
o
nment
s
perature increa
s
e
s
c
o
mpared t
o
m
o
n
o
cr
y
s
tal-
w
ith high
s
o
lar irradiance and elevated tem- line panel
s
due t
o
their multi-
cr
y
s
talline
s
truc-perature
s
, t
o
maintain
o
ptimal energ
y
y
ield
.
ture,
w
hich reduce
s
the
m
o
bilit
y
o
f charge The data pre
s
ented in Table 3 include carrier
s
and minimi
z
e
s
the
impact
o
f thermal
k
e
y
electrical parameter
s
, f
o
r all PV panel
s
, e
x
pan
s
i
o
n
o
n v
o
ltage
.
A
dditi
o
nall
y
, p
o
l
y
cr
y
s
-
s
uch a
s
V ,
I
, and p
ow
er at P , evalu- talline cell
s
have a
s
lightl
y
l
ow
er temperature ated acr
o
ss
an average rear
s
urface temper- c
o
efficient, re
s
ulting
in a
s
maller v
o
ltage dr
o
p ature range
o
f 30°C t
o
70°C
.
The anal
y
s
i
s
w
ith ri
s
ing average
rear
s
urface temperature
.
c
o
n
s
ider
s
t
wo
irradiance level
s
:
500 W/m
2
Thi
s
s
tructural
difference ma
k
e
s
p
o
l
y
cr
y
s
talline and 830 W/m
2
,
s
imulating m
o
derate and panel
s
m
o
re
thermall
y
s
table,
w
hile m
o
n
o
cr
y
s
-high
s
o
lar radiati
o
n
s
cenari
o
s
, re
s
pectivel
y.
talline
panel
s
, de
s
pite higher efficienc
y
, e
x
hib-
F
o
r the m
o
n
o
cr
y
s
talline panel at an irra- it a m
o
re
s
ignificant p
ow
er l
o
ss
at elevated
diance
o
f 500 W/m
2
, the p
ow
er at thetemperature
s
.
ma
x
imum p
ow
er p
o
int (P ) decrea
s
e
s
fr
o
m
I
n c
o
ntra
s
t, the am
o
rph
o
u
s
panel at 500
4
.
4 W at 30°C t
o
3
.
7 W at 70°C, reflecting W/m
2
s
h
ow
s
a
s
ignificantl
y
s
maller reduc-
a t
o
tal decrea
s
e
o
f appr
o
x
imatel
y
15
.
9
%
.
ti
o
n in p
ow
er
o
utput, fr
o
m 1
.
1 W at 30°C t
o
The decline in P i
s
relativel
y
c
o
n
s
i
s
tent 1
.
0 W at 70°C, indicating a t
o
tal decrea
s
e
acr
o
ss
temperature increment
s
,
w
ith percent-
o
f appr
o
x
imatel
y
9
.
1
%
.
The percentage
age change
s
ranging fr
o
m
–
4
.
55
%
t
o
–
change
s
bet
w
een temperature
s
are relativel
y
5
.
0
%
.
Thi
s
trend i
s
primaril
y
attributed t
o
min
o
r, e
x
cept f
o
r a m
o
re
s
ignificant dr
o
p
o
f
a reducti
o
n in the
o
pen-circuit v
o
ltage a
s
–
9
.
09
%
bet
w
een 60°C and 70°C
.
Thi
s
in-
temperature increa
s
e
s
,
w
hile the
s
h
o
rt-circuit dicate
s
that am
o
rph
o
u
s
s
ilic
o
n panel
s
e
x
hibit
current
s
h
ow
s
a min
o
r increa
s
e, in
s
ufficient t
o
better thermal
s
tabilit
y
c
o
mpared t
o
cr
y
s
tal-
o
ff
s
et the v
o
ltage l
o
ss
.
line
s
ilic
o
n panel
s
, li
k
el
y
due t
o
the material
The p
o
l
y
cr
y
s
talline panel under the
s
ame pr
o
pertie
s
and the l
ow
er den
s
it
y
o
f defect
s
irradiance c
o
nditi
o
n (500 W/m
2
) e
x
hibit
s
that influence charge carrier rec
o
mbinati
o
n
.
T
ab
l
e
3
.
R
e
s
u
l
ts
fo
r
o
pe
n
-
c
i
rc
u
i
t
vo
l
t
age
,
s
ho
rt
-
c
i
rc
u
i
t c
u
rr
e
n
t
a
n
d
p
o
w
e
r
i
n
MPP
Serie
s
30
o
C40
o
C50
o
C60
o
C70
o
C
O
C
S
C
M
PP
O
C
S
C
M
PP
O
C
S
C
M
PP
O
C
S
C
M
PP
O
C
S
C
M
PP
U
I
PU
I
PU
I
PU
I
PU
I
P
[
V
]
[
m
A]
[
W
]
[
V
]
[
m
A]
[
W
]
[
V
]
[
m
A]
[
W
]
[
V
]
[
m
A]
[
W
]
[
V
]
[
m
A]
[
W
]
line-500
M
o
n
o
cr
y
s
tal-
21
.
0 289
.
0 4
.
4 20
.
0 292
.
3 4
.
2 19
.
0 298
.
2 4
.
0 18
.
2 303
.
8 3
.
8 17
.
0 309
.
0 3
.
7
line-500
P
o
l
y
cr
y
s
tal-
20
.
6 285
.
6 4
.
1 19
.
8 289
.
5 4
.
0 18
.
9 295
.
0 3
.
9 17
.
9 301
.
0 3
.
8 17
.
0 306
.
1 3
.
7
line-830
A
m
o
rph
o
u
s
-500 20
.
9 91
.
5 1
.
1 20
.
1 93
.
0 1
.
1 19
.
0 95
.
2 1
.
1 18
.
3 96
.
5 1
.
0 17
.
1 98
.
7 1
.
0
M
o
n
o
cr
y
s
tal-
21
.
2 382
.
0 5
.
8 20
.
5 385
.
0 5
.
6 19
.
8 389
.
0 5
.
5 18
.
9 395
.
0 5
.
4 17
.
1 409
.
0 4
.
9
line-830
P
o
l
y
cr
y
s
tal-
21
.
1 362
.
0 5
.
5 20
.
5 370
.
0 5
.
5 19
.
9 378
.
0 5
.
4 19
.
1 385
.
0 5
.
3 17
.
9 392
.
0 5
.
1
A
m
o
rph
o
u
s
-830 21
.
4 110
.
5 1
.
3 20
.
2 112
.
2 1
.
3 19
.
1 114
.
6 1
.
3 18
.
0 116
.
2 1
.
2 16
.
9 117
.
1 1
.
2
F
i
g
u
r
e
3
.
C
u
rr
e
n
t
-
vo
l
t
age
(
l
e
f
t
–
a
)
a
n
d
p
o
w
e
r
-
vo
l
-
t
age
(
r
i
g
h
t –
b
)
c
h
a
-
r
a
ct
e
r
i
st
i
cs –
Mono
-
cryst
a
lli
n
e
-
830
19
www.
inf
o
rmacjain
s
tal
.
c
o
m
.
pl
10/2025
Ź
r
ó
d
ł
a
c
i
ep
ł
a
i
e
n
e
r
g
ii
e
l
e
kt
r
yc
z
n
e
j
MPP
O
C
MPP
MPP
MPP
When anal
y
z
ing the data f
o
r higher irradi-
ance (830 W/m
2
), the m
o
n
o
cr
y
s
talline panel
again
s
h
ow
s
a
s
ub
s
tantial decrea
s
e in P,
fr
o
m 5
.
8 W at 30°C t
o
4
.
9 W at 70°C, re-
s
ulting in an
o
verall reducti
o
n
o
f appr
o
x
i-
matel
y
15
.
5
%
.
The decline i
s
particularl
y
pr
o
n
o
unced bet
w
een 60°C and 70°C,
w
here the percentage change reache
s
–
9
.
26
%
.
Thi
s
enhanced
s
en
s
itivit
y
at higher ir-
radiance level
s
can be attributed t
o
in-
crea
s
ed thermal
s
tre
ss
o
n the panel, leading
t
o
m
o
re
s
ignificant reducti
o
n
s
in V
.
The p
o
l
y
cr
y
s
talline panel at 830 W/m
2
s
h
ow
s
a decrea
s
e in Pfr
o
m 5
.
5 W at 30°C
t
o
5
.
1 W at 70°C,
w
ith an
o
verall reducti
o
n
o
f
ar
o
und 7
.
3
%
.
The change
s
bet
w
een tempera-
ture increment
s
remain relativel
y
c
o
n
s
i
s
tent,
ranging fr
o
m 0
.
0
%
t
o
–
3
.
77
%
.
Thi
s
again
c
o
nfirm
s
that p
o
l
y
cr
y
s
talline panel
s
are le
ss
affected b
y
temperature c
o
mpared t
o
m
o
n
o
-
cr
y
s
talline
o
ne
s
, even at higher irradiance
.
The am
o
rph
o
u
s
panel under high irradi-
ance (830 W/m
2
)
s
h
ow
s
minimal variati
o
n,
w
ith Pdecrea
s
ing fr
o
m 1
.
3 W at 30°C t
o
1
.
2 W at 70°C, c
o
rre
s
p
o
nding t
o
a t
o
tal de-
crea
s
e
o
f ab
o
ut 7
.
7
%
.
The percentage chang-
e
s
remain l
ow
thr
o
ugh
o
ut, indicating that
am
o
rph
o
u
s
panel
s
maintain their p
ow
er
o
ut-
put effectivel
y
even under high temperature
and irradiance c
o
nditi
o
n
s
.
When c
o
mparing the PV panel
s
under
different irradiance c
o
nditi
o
n
s
, it i
s
evident
that the increa
s
e in irradiance fr
o
m 500 W/
m
2
t
o
830 W/m
2
s
ignificantl
y
enhance
s
the
p
ow
er
o
utput
o
f all panel t
y
pe
s
due t
o
in-
crea
s
ed current generati
o
n
.
H
ow
ever, the
average rear
s
urface temperature
s
en
s
itivit
y
differ
s
acr
o
ss
the techn
o
l
o
gie
s
.
M
o
n
o
cr
y
s
tal-
line panel
s
s
h
ow
a m
o
re pr
o
n
o
unced reduc-
ti
o
n in p
ow
er
w
ith increa
s
ing temperature,
particularl
y
at higher irradiance,
w
here the
v
o
ltage dr
o
p i
s
m
o
re
s
ignificant
.
I
n c
o
ntra
s
t,
p
o
l
y
cr
y
s
talline panel
s
dem
o
n
s
trate better
temperature re
s
ilience, maintaining relativel
y
s
table p
ow
er
o
utput even a
s
temperature in-
crea
s
e
s
.
The m
o
s
t
s
table perf
o
rmance i
s
o
b-
s
erved in am
o
rph
o
u
s
panel
s
,
w
hich e
x
hibit
minimal change
s
in Pacr
o
ss
b
o
th irradi-
ance and temperature variati
o
n
s
.
T
empe
r
a
t
u
r
e
c
o
e
ff
i
c
i
e
n
ts
α
,
β
a
n
d
γ
T
o
illu
s
trate the impact
o
f the average rear
s
urface temperature
o
n the
o
perati
o
n
o
f the
te
s
ted ph
o
t
o
v
o
ltaic panel
s
, the temperature
c
o
efficient
s
α
(
s
h
o
rt-circuit current,
E
quati
o
n
1),
β
(
o
pen-circuit v
o
ltage,
E
quati
o
n 2), and
γ
(p
ow
er,
E
quati
o
n 3)
w
ere determined
.
The
s
e c
o
efficient
s
are e
ss
ential f
o
r evaluating
the thermal perf
o
rmance
o
f ph
o
t
o
v
o
ltaic pan-
el
s
, a
s
the temperature
o
f the rear
s
ide
o
f the
PV panel directl
y
affect
s
the p
ow
er
o
utput
.
Temperature c
o
efficient
s
pr
o
vide quanti-
tative in
s
ight int
o
h
ow
variati
o
n
s
in tempera-
ture influence
k
e
y
electrical parameter
s
o
f PV
panel
s
.
The
y
are particularl
y
imp
o
rtant
w
hen
de
s
igning PV
s
y
s
tem
s
f
o
r envir
o
nment
s
w
ith
s
ignificant temperature fluctuati
o
n
s
, a
s
the
y
help predict efficienc
y
l
o
ss
e
s
and
o
ptimi
z
e
panel
s
electi
o
n
.
(1)
(2)
(3)
S
C
S
C
O
C
O
C
The c
o
efficient
α
repre
s
ent
s
the change in
the
I
per degree Cel
s
iu
s
(°C) increa
s
e in
temperature
.
T
y
picall
y
,
α
i
s
p
o
s
itive, indicating
that
I
s
lightl
y
increa
s
e
s
w
ith PV panel tem-
perature due t
o
enhanced thermal generati
o
n
o
f charge carrier
s
.
H
ow
ever, the increa
s
e i
s
u
s
uall
y
minimal and d
o
e
s
n
o
t c
o
mpen
s
ate f
o
r
the l
o
ss
e
s
cau
s
ed b
y
v
o
ltage reducti
o
n
.
The c
o
efficient
β
quantifie
s
the change in
the V
w
ith PV panel temperature
.
I
t i
s
gen-
erall
y
negative, reflecting the
s
ignificant de-
crea
s
e in Va
s
the PV panel temperature
ri
s
e
s
.
Thi
s
decrea
s
e i
s
primaril
y
due t
o
in-
crea
s
ed rec
o
mbinati
o
n rate
s
and reduced
bandgap energ
y
at higher temperature
s
,
leading t
o
a decline in the p
o
tential differ-
ence acr
o
ss
the PV cell
.
MPP
The c
o
efficient
γ
indicate
s
the change in
P
w
ith temperature and i
s
al
s
o
negative
.
Thi
s
parameter directl
y
c
o
rrelate
s
w
ith the reducti
o
n
in p
ow
er
o
utput a
s
b
o
th v
o
ltage and efficienc
y
decrea
s
e
w
ith increa
s
ing temperature
.
T
y
pi-
call
y
,
γ
i
s
m
o
re pr
o
n
o
unced in m
o
n
o
cr
y
s
talline
panel
s
c
o
mpared t
o
p
o
l
y
cr
y
s
talline
o
r am
o
r-
ph
o
u
s
panel
s
.
The pre
s
ented graph
s
(
F
igure
s
4 and 5)
illu
s
trate the influence
o
f average rear
s
ur-
face temperature
o
n the current, v
o
ltage, and
p
ow
er at the ma
x
imum p
ow
er p
o
int
o
f vari-
o
u
s
PV panel
s
under different irradiance
c
o
nditi
o
n
s
.
The anal
y
s
i
s
enc
o
mpa
ss
e
s
m
o
n
o
-
cr
y
s
talline, p
o
l
y
cr
y
s
talline, and am
o
rph
o
u
s
PV panel
s
s
ubjected t
o
irradiance level
s
o
f
500 W/m
2
and 830 W/m
2
,
w
ith tempera-
ture
s
ranging fr
o
m 30°C t
o
70°C
.
F
igure 4a
s
h
ow
s
the variati
o
n
o
f
s
h
o
rt-cir-
cuit current a
s
a functi
o
n
o
f average rear
s
ur-
face temperature f
o
r the different PV panel
s
.
I
t
i
s
evident that f
o
r all panel t
y
pe
s
, the current
increa
s
e
s
s
lightl
y
a
s
the temperature ri
s
e
s
.
Thi
s
trend i
s
m
o
re pr
o
n
o
unced f
o
r the panel
s
te
s
ted
at higher irradiance (830 W/m
2
), particular-
l
y
f
o
r the m
o
n
o
cr
y
s
talline and p
o
l
y
cr
y
s
talline
panel
s
,
w
here the current value
s
reach ap-
pr
o
x
imatel
y
400 m
A
at 70°C
.
I
n c
o
ntra
s
t, the
am
o
rph
o
u
s
panel
s
e
x
hibit
s
ignificantl
y
l
ow
er
current value
s
,
w
ith a m
o
de
s
t increa
s
e fr
o
m
ar
o
und 90 m
A
at 30°C t
o
ab
o
ut 117 m
A
at
70°C under the 830 W/m
2
irradiance
.
A
t
l
ow
er irradiance (500 W/m
2
), the current
level
s
f
o
r m
o
n
o
cr
y
s
talline and p
o
l
y
cr
y
s
talline
panel
s
are c
o
n
s
i
s
tentl
y
ar
o
und 300 m
A
,
w
hile
the am
o
rph
o
u
s
panel reache
s
o
nl
y
ab
o
ut 98
m
A
at the highe
s
t temperature
.
The increa
s
e in
current
w
ith temperature can be attributed t
o
enhanced thermal e
x
citati
o
n
o
f charge carri-
er
s
,
w
hich
s
lightl
y
rai
s
e
s
the current generati
o
n
de
s
pite the thermal l
o
ss
e
s
.
H
ow
ever, the mag-
nitude
o
f the increa
s
e i
s
relativel
y
s
mall c
o
m-
pared t
o
the decline in v
o
ltage
o
b
s
erved in the
s
ub
s
equent anal
y
s
i
s
.
F
igure 4b depict
s
the relati
o
n
s
hip be-
t
w
een
o
pen-circuit v
o
ltage and average rear
s
urface temperature f
o
r the PV panel
s
.
I
t
clearl
y
s
h
ow
s
a decrea
s
ing trend
o
f v
o
ltage a
s
the temperature increa
s
e
s
,
w
hich i
s
c
o
n
s
i
s
tent
S
C
O
C
F
i
g
u
r
e
4
.
R
e
l
a
t
i
on
I
(
l
e
f
t –
a
)
a
n
d
U
(
ri
g
h
t –
b
)
a
s
a
fun
ct
i
on
of
PV
pa
n
e
l
t
empe
r
a
t
u
r
e
2010/2025
www.
inf
o
rmacjain
s
tal
.
c
o
m
.
pl
Ź
acr
o
ss
all panel t
y
pe
s
and irradiance level
s
.
F
o
r b
o
th m
o
n
o
cr
y
s
talline and p
o
l
y
cr
y
s
talline
panel
s
, the v
o
ltage decrea
s
e
s
fr
o
m appr
o
x
i-
matel
y
21 V at 30°C t
o
ar
o
und 17 V at 70°C
under b
o
th irradiance c
o
nditi
o
n
s
.
A
m
o
rph
o
u
s
panel
s
al
s
o
di
s
pla
y
a decrea
s
e, albeit
s
tarting
fr
o
m a
s
lightl
y
l
ow
er v
o
ltage level
.
The reduc-
ti
o
n in v
o
ltage
w
ith temperature i
s
primaril
y
due t
o
the increa
s
ed rec
o
mbinati
o
n rate
s
o
f
charge carrier
s
and the narr
ow
ing
o
f the
s
emi-
c
o
nduct
o
r bandgap at elevated temperature
s
.
Thi
s
decrea
s
e in v
o
ltage i
s
m
o
re critical f
o
r
m
o
n
o
cr
y
s
talline panel
s
,
w
here the v
o
ltage
dr
o
p i
s
m
o
re pr
o
n
o
unced c
o
mpared t
o
p
o
l
y
-
cr
y
s
talline and am
o
rph
o
u
s
t
y
pe
s
.
The relative-
l
y
s
table v
o
ltage decrea
s
e bet
w
een the t
wo
irradiance level
s
s
ugge
s
t
s
that the thermal ef-
fect
s
d
o
minate
o
ver the variati
o
n
s
cau
s
ed b
y
different irradiance inten
s
itie
s
.
F
igure 5
s
h
ow
s
the p
ow
er at the ma
x
i-
mum p
ow
er p
o
int a
s
a functi
o
n
o
f average
rear
s
urface temperature
o
f the PV panel
.
The
p
ow
er
o
utput decrea
s
e
s
w
ith increa
s
ing tem-
perature f
o
r all te
s
ted PV panel
s
.
M
o
n
o
cr
y
s
-
talline panel
s
at 830 W/m
2
e
x
hibit the
highe
s
t p
ow
er at l
ow
er temperature
s
, ar
o
und
5
.
8 W at 30°C, but thi
s
decrea
s
e
s
s
ignifi-
cantl
y
t
o
4
.
9 W at 70°C, indicating a
s
ub-
s
tantial reducti
o
n in p
ow
er efficienc
y.
P
o
l
y
-
cr
y
s
talline panel
s
under the
s
ame c
o
nditi
o
n
s
s
h
ow
a
s
imilar trend, th
o
ugh
s
lightl
y
le
ss
pr
o
n
o
unced, decrea
s
ing fr
o
m 5
.
5 W t
o
5
.
1
W
o
ver the
s
ame temperature range
.
F
o
r the
l
ow
er irradiance level (500 W/m
2
), the
p
ow
er
o
utput
o
f m
o
n
o
cr
y
s
talline panel
s
de-
crea
s
e
s
fr
o
m 4
.
4 W at 30°C t
o
3
.
7 W at
70°C,
w
hile p
o
l
y
cr
y
s
talline panel
s
dr
o
p
fr
o
m 4
.
1 W t
o
3
.
7 W
.
A
m
o
rph
o
u
s
panel
s
,
b
o
th at 500 W/m
2
and 830 W/m
2
, e
x
-
hibit minimal p
ow
er
o
utput variati
o
n
s
,
w
ith
o
nl
y
s
light decrea
s
e
s
fr
o
m 1
.
3 W t
o
1
.
2
W acr
o
ss
the temperature range
.
Thi
s
c
o
n
s
i
s
-
tent reducti
o
n in p
ow
er
w
ith temperature in-
crea
s
e i
s
primaril
y
due t
o
the c
o
mbinati
o
n
o
f
v
o
ltage reducti
o
n and the limited increa
s
e in
current, re
s
ulting in an
o
verall negative im-
pact
o
n the panel efficienc
y.
The pre
s
ented Table 4
s
ummari
z
e
s
the
temperature c
o
efficient
s
(
α
,
β
, and
γ
) f
o
r dif-
F
i
g
u
r
e
5
.
MPP
ferent PV panel
s
under t
wo
irradiance level
s
:
and
–
0
.
102 V/°C (-0
.
592
%
/°C) f
o
r 830
500 W/m
2
and 830 W/m
2
.
W/m
2
, highlighting a m
o
re pr
o
n
o
unced v
o
lt-
The c
o
efficient
α
repre
s
ent
s
the change in age dr
o
p c
o
mpared t
o
p
o
l
y
cr
y
s
talline and
s
h
o
rt-circuit current
w
ith temperature
.
A
m
o
ng am
o
rph
o
u
s
panel
s
.
P
o
l
y
cr
y
s
talline panel
s
,
the te
s
ted panel
s
, the highe
s
t value
s
o
f
α
are particularl
y
at 830 W/m
2
,
s
h
ow
le
ss
v
o
ltage
o
b
s
erved f
o
r the p
o
l
y
cr
y
s
talline panel at
s
en
s
itivit
y
w
ith a value
o
f
–
0
.
080 V/°C
830 W/m
2
(0
.
750 m
A
/°C, 0
.
191
%
/°C) (-0
.
445
%
/°C)
.
A
m
o
rph
o
u
s
panel
s
dem
o
n-
and m
o
n
o
cr
y
s
talline at 830 W/m
2
(0
.
675
s
trate intermediate v
o
ltage
s
en
s
itivit
y
w
ith val-
m
A
/°C, 0
.
165
%
/°C), indicating a
s
ignifi- ue
s
o
f
–
0
.
095 V/°C (-0
.
552
%
/°C) at 500
cant increa
s
e in current
w
ith ri
s
ing tempera- W/m
2
and
–
0
.
113 V/°C (-0
.
667
%
/°C) at
ture under high irradiance
.
I
n c
o
ntra
s
t, the 830 W/m
2
.
Thi
s
pattern indicate
s
that cr
y
s
tal-
am
o
rph
o
u
s
panel
s
e
x
hibit the l
ow
e
s
t value
s
line
s
ilic
o
n, particularl
y
m
o
n
o
cr
y
s
talline, i
s
m
o
re pr
o
ne t
o
v
o
ltage l
o
ss
at higher tempera-
R
e
l
a
t
i
on
P
a
s
a
fun
ct
i
on
of
PV
ture
s
,
w
hile am
o
rph
o
u
s
s
ilic
o
n
s
h
ow
s
a rela-
pa
n
e
l
t
empe
r
a
t
u
r
e
tivel
y
m
o
derate v
o
ltage reducti
o
n
.
The c
o
efficient
γ
reflect
s
the temperature-
induced change in ma
x
imum p
ow
er
o
utput
.
I
t
i
s
c
o
n
s
i
s
tentl
y
negative f
o
r all panel t
y
pe
s
,
indicating that the p
ow
er decrea
s
e
s
a
s
tem-
perature ri
s
e
s
.
M
o
n
o
cr
y
s
talline panel
s
again
e
x
hibit the m
o
s
t
s
ignificant p
ow
er l
o
ss
w
ith
increa
s
ing temperature, particularl
y
at 500
W/m
2
(-0
.
017 W/°C,
–
0
.
460
%
/°C) and
830 W/m
2
(-0
.
021 W/°C,
–
0
.
430
%
/°C)
.
P
o
l
y
cr
y
s
talline panel
s
s
h
ow
a l
ow
er de-
crea
s
e,
w
ith
–
0
.
011 W/°C (-0
.
292
%
/°C) at
o
f
α
, b
o
th at 500 W/m
2
(0
.
180 m
A
/°C, 500 W/m
2
and
–
0
.
012 W/°C
0
.
182
%
/°C) and 830 W/m
2
(0
.
165 (-0
.
228
%
/°C) at 830 W/m
2
.
A
m
o
rph
o
u
s
m
A
/°C, 0
.
141
%
/°C), reflecting a relativel
y
panel
s
e
x
hibit the lea
s
t p
ow
er
s
en
s
itivit
y
w
ith
s
mall increa
s
e in current a
s
temperature ri
s
e
s
.
temperature,
s
h
ow
ing
–
0
.
003 W/°C
Thi
s
difference i
s
c
o
n
s
i
s
tent
w
ith the inherent (-0
.
294
%
/°C) at 500 W/m
2
and
–
0
.
004
material pr
o
pertie
s
o
f am
o
rph
o
u
s
s
ilic
o
n, W/°C (-0
.
310
%
/°C) at 830 W/m
2
.
Thi
s
w
hich
s
h
ow
s
le
ss
temperature
s
en
s
itivit
y
c
o
m- dem
o
n
s
trate
s
that am
o
rph
o
u
s
panel
s
,
w
hile
pared t
o
cr
y
s
talline
s
ilic
o
n
.
inherentl
y
le
ss
efficient, maintain m
o
re
s
table
The c
o
efficient
β
quantifie
s
the change in p
ow
er
o
utput under var
y
ing thermal c
o
ndi-
o
pen-circuit v
o
ltage
w
ith temperature and i
s
ti
o
n
s
c
o
mpared t
o
cr
y
s
talline
s
ilic
o
n panel
s
.
c
o
n
s
i
s
tentl
y
negative f
o
r all panel
s
, indicating
a v
o
ltage decrea
s
e
w
ith increa
s
ing average
P
a
n
e
l
s
e
ff
i
c
i
e
n
cy
a
n
d
f
ill
f
a
ct
o
r
rear
s
urface temperature
o
f the PV panel
s
.
The ne
x
t
s
tep
w
a
s
t
o
determine the pan-
M
o
n
o
cr
y
s
talline panel
s
e
x
hibit m
o
re negative el
s
efficienc
y
(
η
) and fill fact
o
r (
FF
)
.
Table 5
value
s
o
f
β
,
s
uch a
s
–
0
.
101 V/°C
s
ummari
z
e
s
the efficienc
y
and fill fact
o
r
o
f
(-0
.
594
%
/°C) f
o
r the 500 W/m
2
c
o
nditi
o
n different PV panel
s
under var
y
ing average
T
ab
l
e
4
.
T
empe
r
a
t
u
r
e
c
o
e
ff
i
c
i
e
n
ts
α
,
β
a
n
d
γ
fo
r
d
i
ff
e
r
e
n
t
v
a
l
u
e
s
of
i
rr
ad
i
a
n
c
e
T
y
pe
o
f panel
αβγ
[
m
A
/°C
][
%
/°C
][
V/°C
][
%
/°C
][
W/°C
][
%
/°C
]
M
o
n
o
cr
y
s
talline-5000
.
500 0
.
162-0
.
101-0
.
594 -0
.
017-0
.
460
P
o
licr
y
s
talline-500 0
.
513 0
.
167 -0
.
091 -0
.
535 -0
.
011 -0
.
292
A
m
o
rph
o
u
s
-500 0
.
180 0
.
182 -0
.
095 -0
.
552 -0
.
003 -0
.
294
M
o
n
o
cr
y
s
talline-830 0
.
675 0
.
165 -0
.
102 -0
.
592 -0
.
021 -0
.
430
P
o
licr
y
s
talline-830 0
.
750 0
.
191 -0
.
080 -0
.
445 -0
.
012 -0
.
228
A
m
o
rph
o
u
s
-830 0
.
165 0
.
141 -0
.
113 -0
.
667 -0
.
004 -0
.
310
T
ab
l
e
5
.
S
u
mma
ry
of
pa
n
e
l
s
e
ff
i
c
i
e
n
cy
a
n
d
f
ill
f
a
ct
o
r
T
y
pe
o
f panel30
o
C40
o
C50
o
C60
o
C70
o
C
η
FF
η
FF
η
FF
η
FF
η
FF
[
%
]
[
-
]
[
%
]
[
-
]
[
%
]
[
-
]
[
%
]
[
-
]
[
%
]
[
-
]
M
o
n
o
cr
y
s
talline-500 13
.
5 0
.
723 12
.
9 0
.
715 12
.
4 0
.
710 11
.
7 0
.
689 11
.
4 0
.
706
P
o
l
y
cr
y
s
talline-500 12
.
2 0
.
699 11
.
8 0
.
694 11
.
5 0
.
698 11
.
4 0
.
713 10
.
9 0
.
708
A
m
o
rph
o
u
s
-500 1
.
5 0
.
582 1
.
5 0
.
589 1
.
5 0
.
597 1
.
4 0
.
578 1
.
4 0
.
589
M
o
n
o
cr
y
s
talline-830 10
.
7 0
.
714 10
.
4 0
.
709 10
.
2 0
.
715 9
.
9 0
.
718 9
.
2 0
.
704
P
o
l
y
cr
y
s
talline-830 9
.
9 0
.
724 9
.
8 0
.
720 9
.
6 0
.
715 9
.
4 0
.
718 9
.
0 0
.
722
A
m
o
rph
o
u
s
-8301
.
10
.
5591
.
10
.
5761
.
10
.
5821
.
00
.
5891
.
00
.
594
21
www.
inf
o
rmacjain
s
tal
.
c
o
m
.
pl
10/2025
Ź
r
ó
d
ł
a
c
i
ep
ł
a
i
e
n
e
r
g
ii
e
l
e
kt
r
yc
z
n
e
j
rear
s
urface temperature c
o
nditi
o
n
s
(30°C t
o
70°C) and irradiance level
s
(500 W/m
2
and 830 W/m
2
)
.
The
s
e metric
s
pr
o
vide
crucial in
s
ight
s
int
o
the energ
y
c
o
nver
s
i
o
n
capabilit
y
and the qualit
y
o
f electrical
o
utput
o
f the te
s
ted PV panel
s
.
The data clearl
y
s
h
ow
that the efficienc
y
o
f all te
s
ted PV panel
s
decrea
s
e
s
a
s
the tem-
perature increa
s
e
s
, regardle
ss
o
f the irradi-
ance level
.
Thi
s
trend i
s
c
o
n
s
i
s
tent
w
ith
the t
y
pical behavi
o
r
o
f
s
o
lar cell
s
,
w
here
elevat-ed temperature
s
reduce v
o
ltage m
o
re
s
ignifi-cantl
y
than the
y
increa
s
e current,
re
s
ulting in a net decrea
s
e in p
ow
er
o
utput
.
F
o
r the m
o
n
o
cr
y
s
talline panel at
500 W/m
2
, the efficienc
y
dr
o
p
s
fr
o
m
13
.
5
%
at 30°C t
o
11
.
4
%
at 70°C,
repre
s
enting an appr
o
x
i-mate reducti
o
n
o
f 15
.
6
%
.
Similarl
y
, the m
o
n
o
cr
y
s
talline
panel at 830 W/m
2
s
h
ow
s
a decrea
s
e
fr
o
m 10
.
7
%
at 30°C t
o
9
.
2
%
at 70°C,
indicating a decrea
s
e
o
f ar
o
und 14
%
.
Thi
s
indicate
s
that m
o
n
o
cr
y
s
talline panel
s
are
particularl
y
s
en
s
itive t
o
temperature increa
s
-
e
s
,
w
hich
s
ignificantl
y
affect their efficienc
y
,
e
s
peciall
y
at higher irradiance
.
The p
o
l
y
cr
y
s
talline panel at 500 W/m
2
e
x
hibit
s
a reducti
o
n in efficienc
y
fr
o
m 12
.
2
%
at 30°C t
o
11
.
0
%
at 70°C,
s
h
ow
ing a de-
crea
s
e
o
f ab
o
ut 9
.
8
%
.
Under higher irradi-
ance (830 W/m
2
), the p
o
l
y
cr
y
s
talline pan-
el’
s
efficienc
y
decrea
s
e
s
fr
o
m 9
.
9
%
at 30°C
t
o
9
.
0
%
at 70°C, reflecting a decrea
s
e
o
f
appr
o
x
imatel
y
9
.
1
%
.
The
s
e re
s
ult
s
s
ugge
s
t
that p
o
l
y
cr
y
s
talline panel
s
e
x
hibit better ther-
mal
s
tabilit
y
c
o
mpared t
o
m
o
n
o
cr
y
s
talline
panel
s
, maintaining relativel
y
higher effi-
cienc
y
a
s
the temperature ri
s
e
s
.
A
m
o
rph
o
u
s
panel
s
di
s
pla
y
s
ignificantl
y
l
ow
er efficienc
y
c
o
mpared t
o
cr
y
s
talline pan-
el
s
.
A
t 500 W/m
2
, the efficienc
y
o
f the am
o
r-
ph
o
u
s
panel decrea
s
e
s
s
lightl
y
fr
o
m 1
.
5
%
at
30°C t
o
1
.
4
%
at 70°C,
s
h
ow
ing a reducti
o
n
o
f ar
o
und 6
.
7
%
.
A
t 830 W/m
2
, the efficienc
y
remain
s
alm
o
s
t unchanged, fluctuating
s
lightl
y
ar
o
und 1
.
1
%
.
Thi
s
minimal change highlight
s
the thermal re
s
ilience
o
f am
o
rph
o
u
s
s
ilic
o
n,
w
hich, de
s
pite it
s
l
ow
er efficienc
y
, e
x
hibit
s
s
tabilit
y
in perf
o
rmance acr
o
ss
var
y
ing tem-
perature
s
.
The re
s
ult
s
indicate that the fill fact
o
r de-
crea
s
e
s
s
lightl
y
w
ith increa
s
ing temperature f
o
r
all panel t
y
pe
s
.
The m
o
n
o
cr
y
s
talline panel at
500 W/m
2
s
h
ow
s
a decrea
s
e in
FF
fr
o
m
0
.
723 at 30°C t
o
0
.
706 at 70°C,
w
hile at
830 W/m
2
, it decrea
s
e
s
fr
o
m 0
.
714 t
o
0
.
704
.
Similarl
y
, the p
o
l
y
cr
y
s
talline panel at 500 W/
m
2
e
x
hibit
s
a decrea
s
e fr
o
m 0
.
699 at 30°C t
o
0
.
708 at 70°C, and at 830 W/m
2
, it dr
o
p
s
fr
o
m 0
.
724 t
o
0
.
722
.
The am
o
rph
o
u
s
panel
s
s
h
ow
a m
o
re pr
o
n
o
unced reducti
o
n in
FF
at
500 W/m
2
, fr
o
m 0
.
582 at 30°C t
o
0
.
589 at
70°C,
w
hile at 830 W/m
2
, the
FF
impr
o
ve
s
s
lightl
y
fr
o
m 0
.
559 t
o
0
.
594
.
Po
w
e
r
i
n
ma
xi
m
u
m
p
o
w
e
r
p
o
i
n
t
pe
r
un
i
t
a
r
ea
The pre
s
ented graph (
F
igure 6) illu
s
trate
s
the p
ow
er
o
utput per unit area (1 m
2
)
o
f differ-
ent ph
o
t
o
v
o
ltaic panel
s
under var
y
ing tem-
perature c
o
nditi
o
n
s
, ranging fr
o
m 30°C t
o
70°C and different irradiance
.
Since the te
s
ted
PV panel
s
had different
s
urface area
s
,
s
tan-
dardi
z
ing the p
ow
er
o
utput t
o
a unit area
w
a
s
e
ss
ential t
o
accuratel
y
a
ss
e
ss
the impact
o
f dif-
ferent PV techn
o
l
o
gie
s
o
n the re
s
ult
s
.
Thi
s
n
o
r-
mali
z
ati
o
n all
ow
s
f
o
r a fair c
o
mpari
s
o
n be-
t
w
een the panel t
y
pe
s
, regardle
ss
o
f their
ph
y
s
ical
s
i
z
e
.
The graph clearl
y
s
h
ow
s
that m
o
n
o
cr
y
s
-
talline and p
o
l
y
cr
y
s
talline panel
s
te
s
ted un-
der higher irradiance c
o
nditi
o
n
s
(830 W/
m
2
) e
x
hibit the highe
s
t p
ow
er den
s
it
y
, reach-
ing ar
o
und 85-90 W/m
2
at l
ow
er tempera-
ture
s
(30°C)
.
A
s
the temperature increa
s
e
s
,
the p
ow
er
o
utput per unit area decrea
s
e
s
s
lightl
y
,
w
ith a dr
o
p
o
f appr
o
x
imatel
y
10
%
b
y
70°C
.
Thi
s
decline i
s
c
o
n
s
i
s
tent
w
ith the
k
n
ow
n temperature
s
en
s
itivit
y
o
f cr
y
s
talline
s
ilic
o
n panel
s
,
w
here increa
s
ed temperature
lead
s
t
o
a decrea
s
e in v
o
ltage, and c
o
n
s
e-
quentl
y
, a reducti
o
n in p
ow
er
o
utput
.
F
o
r m
o
n
o
cr
y
s
talline and p
o
l
y
cr
y
s
talline
panel
s
te
s
ted under l
ow
er irradiance (500
W/m
2
), the p
ow
er den
s
it
y
i
s
s
ignificantl
y
l
ow
er,
s
tarting at appr
o
x
imatel
y
65-70 W/m
2
at 30°C and decrea
s
ing t
o
ar
o
und 60 W/m
2
at 70°C
.
The percentage reducti
o
n in p
ow
er
per unit area i
s
s
imilar t
o
that
o
b
s
erved at
higher irradiance, indicating that
w
hile the ab-
s
o
lute value
s
differ, the relative effect
o
f tem-
perature
o
n p
ow
er l
o
ss
remain
s
c
o
mparable
.
The am
o
rph
o
u
s
PV panel
s
s
h
ow
di
s
tinctl
y
l
ow
er p
ow
er den
s
it
y
c
o
mpared t
o
cr
y
s
talline
panel
s
, b
o
th at 500 W/m
2
and 830 W/m
2
.
Their p
ow
er
o
utput per unit area remain
s
rela-
tivel
y
c
o
n
s
tant, ranging bet
w
een 10 t
o
12 W/
m
2
,
w
ith minimal variati
o
n acr
o
ss
the tempera-
ture range
.
Thi
s
s
tabilit
y
i
s
characteri
s
tic
o
f
am
o
rph
o
u
s
s
ilic
o
n techn
o
l
o
g
y
,
w
hich e
x
hibit
s
l
ow
er temperature
s
en
s
itivit
y
c
o
mpared t
o
cr
y
s
talline
s
ilic
o
n
.
The relativel
y
c
o
n
s
i
s
tent
p
ow
er den
s
it
y
, de
s
pite temperature fluctua-
ti
o
n
s
, ma
k
e
s
am
o
rph
o
u
s
panel
s
m
o
re
s
uitable
f
o
r applicati
o
n
s
w
here maintaining
o
utput un-
der variable thermal c
o
nditi
o
n
s
i
s
critical
.
S
u
mma
r
y
of
e
x
pe
ri
me
n
t
a
l
r
e
s
u
l
ts
The e
x
perimental anal
y
s
i
s
o
f ph
o
t
o
v
o
lta-
ic panel
s
under var
y
ing irradiance level
s
(500 W/m
2
and 830 W/m
2
) and average
rear
s
urface temperature
s
revealed
s
ignifi-
cant difference
s
in perf
o
rmance am
o
ng
m
o
n
o
cr
y
s
talline, p
o
l
y
cr
y
s
talline, and am
o
r-
ph
o
u
s
s
ilic
o
n m
o
dule
s
.
The current-v
o
ltage and p
ow
er-v
o
ltage
characteri
s
tic
s
revealed that an increa
s
e in the
rear
s
urface temperature
o
f PV panel
s
s
ignifi-
cantl
y
reduce
s
the
o
pen-circuit v
o
ltage,
s
light-
l
y
increa
s
e
s
the
s
h
o
rt-circuit current, and lead
s
t
o
an
o
verall decline in p
ow
er
o
utput—partic-
ularl
y
in m
o
n
o
cr
y
s
talline panel
s
.
Higher irradi-
ance level
s
increa
s
e current, but the relative
temperature-induced p
ow
er l
o
ss
remain
s
c
o
n-
s
i
s
tent acr
o
ss
different irradiance c
o
nditi
o
n
s
.
Temperature c
o
efficient
s
(
α
,
β
,
γ
)
s
h
ow
ed
that m
o
n
o
cr
y
s
talline panel
s
are the m
o
s
t
s
en
s
i-
tive t
o
temperature change
s
, particularl
y
w
ith
m
o
re negative
β
and
γ
value
s
, indicating
s
ig-
nificant v
o
ltage and p
ow
er l
o
ss
.
P
o
l
y
cr
y
s
tal-
line panel
s
di
s
pla
y
ed better thermal
s
tabilit
y
,
w
hile am
o
rph
o
u
s
panel
s
dem
o
n
s
trated the
lea
s
t
s
en
s
itivit
y
, maintaining m
o
re
s
table p
ow
-
er
o
utput
.
E
fficienc
y
decrea
s
ed
w
ith ri
s
ing tempera-
ture f
o
r all panel
s
,
w
ith m
o
n
o
cr
y
s
talline panel
s
s
h
ow
ing the large
s
t decline, f
o
ll
ow
ed b
y
p
o
l
y
cr
y
s
talline,
w
hile am
o
rph
o
u
s
panel
s
re-
mained
s
table
.
The fill fact
o
r al
s
o
s
lightl
y
de-
crea
s
ed
w
ith temperature, particularl
y
in cr
y
s
-
talline panel
s
, but remained m
o
re c
o
n
s
i
s
tent in
am
o
rph
o
u
s
panel
s
.
P
ow
er per unit area (1 m
2
)
s
h
ow
ed that
m
o
n
o
cr
y
s
talline and p
o
l
y
cr
y
s
talline panel
s
at high irradiance (830 W/m
2
) pr
o
duced
the highe
s
t p
ow
er den
s
it
y
, decrea
s
ing b
y
ab
o
ut 10
%
w
ith ri
s
ing temperature
.
A
m
o
r-
ph
o
u
s
panel
s
, de
s
pite l
ow
er p
ow
er den
s
it
y
,
maintained c
o
n
s
i
s
tent perf
o
rmance, indicat-
ing better thermal re
s
ilience
.
O
verall, m
o
n
o
cr
y
s
talline PV panel
s
are highl
y
efficient but m
o
re
s
u
s
ceptible t
o
temperature-induced p
ow
er l
o
ss
e
s
,
w
hile
MPP
F
i
g
u
r
e
6
.
R
e
l
a
t
i
on
P
a
s
a
fun
ct
i
on
of
PV
pa
n
e
l
t
empe
r
a
t
u
r
e
2210/2025
www.
inf
o
rmacjain
s
tal
.
c
o
m
.
pl
Ź
p
o
l
y
cr
y
s
talline panel
s
e
x
hibit m
o
derate
s
ta-
bilit
y
, and am
o
rph
o
u
s
panel
s
, th
o
ugh le
ss
efficient,
o
ffer the be
s
t thermal perf
o
rmance
.
Thi
s
highlight
s
the imp
o
rtance
o
f c
o
n
s
idering
thermal management f
o
r m
o
n
o
cr
y
s
talline
s
y
s
tem
s
, e
s
peciall
y
in high-temperature envi-
r
o
nment
s
.
Mo
de
l
i
n
t
h
e
T
R
N
S
Y
S
s
of
tw
a
r
e
A
fter c
o
nducting e
x
perimental re
s
earch
and
o
btaining relevant data, the devel
o
p-
ment
o
f a d
y
namic m
o
del
o
f a
s
imple PV
s
y
s
tem ba
s
ed
o
n the te
s
ted panel
s
w
a
s
initi-
ated
.
The e
x
perimental re
s
ult
s
, including cur-
rent-v
o
ltage characteri
s
tic
s
, p
ow
er-v
o
ltage
characteri
s
tic
s
, temperature c
o
efficient
s
, effi-
cienc
y
, and p
ow
er per unit area,
w
ere uti-
li
z
ed t
o
create an accurate and reali
s
tic
m
o
del
.
The primar
y
g
o
al
o
f the m
o
deling
pr
o
ce
ss
w
a
s
t
o
calculate the energ
y
y
ield
o
f
each PV panel and c
o
mpare their perf
o
r-
mance thr
o
ugh
o
ut the
y
ear t
o
identif
y
the
m
o
s
t efficient c
o
nfigurati
o
n
.
T
R
NS
Y
S
s
o
ft
w
are
w
a
s
empl
oy
ed f
o
r thi
s
purp
o
s
e,
o
ffering the capabilit
y
t
o
s
imulate
energ
y
y
ield and anal
y
z
e the perf
o
rmance
o
f PV
s
y
s
tem
s
under vari
o
u
s
climatic c
o
ndi-
ti
o
n
s
.
B
y
inc
o
rp
o
rating e
x
perimental data,
T
R
NS
Y
S enabled preci
s
e calculati
o
n
s
o
f
p
ow
er generati
o
n and energ
y
o
utput, ta
k
ing
int
o
acc
o
unt the effect
s
o
f rear
s
urface tem-
perature and irradiance variati
o
n
s
o
n PV
panel perf
o
rmance
.
The
s
imulati
o
n al
s
o
al-
l
ow
ed the identificati
o
n
o
f
o
ptimal tempera-
ture c
o
nditi
o
n
s
f
o
r each panel t
o
ma
x
imi
z
e
energ
y
pr
o
ducti
o
n
w
hile minimi
z
ing the need
f
o
r e
x
ce
ss
ive c
oo
ling
.
P
ow
er generati
o
n and energ
y
y
ield
w
ere
calculated u
s
ing the T
R
NS
Y
S t
oo
l,
w
hich i
s
w
idel
y
u
s
ed f
o
r
s
imulating energ
y
s
y
s
tem
s
and
o
perate
s
o
n c
o
mp
o
nent m
o
del
s
that in-
c
o
rp
o
rate e
x
perimental data and manufac-
turer
s
pecificati
o
n
s
.
The
s
imulati
o
n m
o
del
w
a
s
devel
o
ped ba
s
ed
o
n
s
elf-prepared PV panel
m
o
del
s
and utili
z
ed mete
o
r
o
l
o
gical data
s
o
urced fr
o
m the
M
ete
o
n
o
rm databa
s
e
.
Thi
s
appr
o
ach enabled the determinati
o
n
o
f an-
nual energ
y
generati
o
n f
o
r different t
y
pe
s
o
f
PV panel
s
, c
o
n
s
idering real-
wo
rld envir
o
n-
mental c
o
nditi
o
n
s
and all
ow
ing f
o
r a c
o
m-
prehen
s
ive perf
o
rmance c
o
mpari
s
o
n
.
The
F
igure 7
s
h
ow
s
the change in effi-
cienc
y
f
o
r a m
o
n
o
cr
y
s
talline PV panel under
vari
o
u
s
temperature c
o
nditi
o
n
s
, illu
s
trating
the relati
o
n
s
hip bet
w
een efficienc
y
and irra-
diance f
o
r temperature
s
ranging fr
o
m 30°C
t
o
70°C
.
The anal
y
s
i
s
w
a
s
c
o
nducted u
s
ing
the T
R
NS
Y
S
s
o
ft
w
are t
o
m
o
del the d
y
namic
behavi
o
r
o
f the PV panel ba
s
ed
o
n the e
x
-
perimental data
.
The calculati
o
n
s
w
ere per-
f
o
rmed
s
pecificall
y
f
o
r the cit
y
o
f Kra
kow
,
P
o
land,
w
ith the PV panel
s
o
riented
s
o
uth
and inclined at an angle
o
f 40º,
w
hich i
s
o
ptimal f
o
r the l
o
cati
o
n
.
The time
s
tep
w
a
s
0
.
125 h
o
ur
s
and u
s
ing
s
o
lar radiati
o
n data
o
btained fr
o
m the
M
ete
o
n
o
rm databa
s
e
.
The anal
y
s
i
s
w
a
s
c
o
nducted f
o
r three
repre
s
entative temperature
s
:
30°C, 50°C,
and 70°C,
s
elected t
o
reflect t
y
pical
o
pera-
ti
o
nal c
o
nditi
o
n
s
and e
x
treme
s
cenari
o
s
.
The
s
e temperature level
s
help t
o
under
s
tand
h
ow
the m
o
n
o
cr
y
s
talline panel behave
s
un-
der var
y
ing envir
o
nmental c
o
nditi
o
n
s
thr
o
ugh
o
ut the
y
ear
.
The calculated energ
y
y
ield fr
o
m the unit
s
urface
o
f the panel
s
h
ow
s
that maintaining l
ow
er temperature
s
i
s
crucial
f
o
r achieving higher efficienc
y
, particularl
y
during peri
o
d
s
o
f
s
tr
o
ng
s
o
lar radiati
o
n
.
The general f
o
rmula de
s
cribing the p
ow
-
er generated b
y
a ph
o
t
o
v
o
ltaic panel i
s
e
x
-
pre
ss
ed a
s
f
o
ll
ow
s
:
(4)
Where
:
l
P
–
repre
s
ent
s
the p
ow
er
o
utput
o
f the PV
panel,
[
W
]
,
l
I
x
–
den
o
te
s
the
s
o
lar irradiance incident
o
n the panel
s
urface,
[
W/m
2
]
,
l
a and b are empirical c
o
efficient
s
de-
rived fr
o
m e
x
perimental data
o
r
s
imula-
ti
o
n re
s
ult
s
that acc
o
unt f
o
r the panel’
s
efficienc
y
and temperature effect
s
.
Thi
s
E
quati
o
n 4 reflect
s
the relati
o
n
s
hip
bet
w
een the
s
o
lar irradiance and the re
s
ult-
ing p
ow
er
o
utput
o
f the PV panel, inc
o
rp
o
rat-
ing quadratic and linear term
s
t
o
acc
o
unt f
o
r
the n
o
nlinear behavi
o
ur
o
b
s
erved in real PV
s
y
s
tem
s
.
The divi
s
i
o
n b
y
100 en
s
ure
s
that the
p
ow
er value i
s
appr
o
priatel
y
s
caled
.
Table 6 bel
ow
pre
s
ent
s
the parameter
s
aand b that de
s
cribe the relati
o
n
s
hip bet
w
een
the p
ow
er
o
utput
o
f each ph
o
t
o
v
o
ltaic panel
and the irradiance at a given temperature
.
O
C
MPP
The
s
e parameter
s
w
ere
o
btained thr
o
ugh re-
gre
ss
i
o
n anal
y
s
i
s
ba
s
ed
o
n e
x
perimental data
and reflect the
s
pecific characteri
s
tic
s
o
f each
panel t
y
pe under var
y
ing temperature c
o
ndi-
ti
o
n
s
.
B
y
inc
o
rp
o
rating the
s
e c
o
efficient
s
int
o
the general p
ow
er f
o
rmula, it i
s
p
o
ss
ible t
o
accuratel
y
predict the p
ow
er
o
utput a
s
a func-
ti
o
n
o
f irradiance, facilitating reliable perf
o
r-
mance m
o
delling and
s
imulati
o
n
.
F
igure 8
s
h
ow
the p
ow
er
o
utput per unit
area (W/m
2
)
o
f PV panel
s
f
o
r a
s
elected
da
y
o
f the
y
ear (Jul
y
1
s
t) under three different
temperature c
o
nditi
o
n
s
:
30°C, 50°C, and
70°C
.
The graph
s
illu
s
trate the diurnal varia-
ti
o
n in p
ow
er generati
o
n thr
o
ugh
o
ut the da
y
,
capturing the t
y
pical pattern
o
f
s
o
lar energ
y
pr
o
ducti
o
n,
w
ith a pea
k
ar
o
und midda
y.
The
time
o
n the h
o
ri
z
o
ntal a
x
i
s
i
s
e
x
pre
ss
ed in
h
o
ur
s
(h), and the p
ow
er
o
n the vertical a
x
i
s
i
s
n
o
rmali
z
ed t
o
unit area
.
The three graph
s
c
o
rre
s
p
o
nd t
o
different PV panel t
y
pe
s
:
m
o
n
o
cr
y
s
talline (
F
igure 8a), p
o
l
y
cr
y
s
talline
(
F
igure 8b), and am
o
rph
o
u
s
(
F
igure 8c)
.
F
igure 8a, repre
s
enting the m
o
n
o
cr
y
s
tal-
line panel,
s
h
ow
s
a clear pea
k
in p
ow
er
o
utput at ar
o
und midda
y
,
w
ith the highe
s
t
p
ow
er rec
o
rded at 30°C (appr
o
x
imatel
y
90
W/m
2
), f
o
ll
ow
ed b
y
50°C and then 70°C
.
The difference bet
w
een the p
ow
er pea
k
s
i
s
di
s
tinct, indicating that a
s
the temperature in-
crea
s
e
s
, the p
ow
er
o
utput decrea
s
e
s
.
Thi
s
reducti
o
n i
s
primaril
y
due t
o
the temperature
s
en
s
itivit
y
o
f m
o
n
o
cr
y
s
talline panel
s
,
w
here
an increa
s
e in temperature re
s
ult
s
in a
s
ignifi-
cant dr
o
p in Vand, c
o
n
s
equentl
y
the
V
.
The characteri
s
tic
s
harp ri
s
e and fall
o
f
the curve reflect the high efficienc
y
o
f m
o
n
o
-
cr
y
s
talline techn
o
l
o
g
y
during pea
k
irradi-
ance peri
o
d
s
, but al
s
o
it
s
s
u
s
ceptibilit
y
t
o
temperature-induced l
o
ss
e
s
.
F
igure 8b, illu
s
trating the p
o
l
y
cr
y
s
talline
panel, f
o
ll
ow
s
a
s
imilar pattern but
w
ith
T
ab
l
e
6
.
P
a
r
ame
t
e
rs
a
a
n
d
b
T
y
pe
o
f panel30 ºC
50 ºC70 ºC
abab
ab
M
o
n
o
cr
y
s
talline-0
.
0084 17
.
7120
P
o
l
y
cr
y
s
talline-0
.
007015
.
6800
A
m
o
rph
o
u
s
-0
.
00132
.
1715
-0
.
0066 15
.
6980 -0
.
0068 14
.
8090
-0
.
0059 14
.
4690 -0
.
0056 13
.
7180
-0
.
00132
.
1064-0
.
00121
.
9509
F
i
g
u
r
e
7
.
Eff
i
c
i
e
n
cy
of
t
h
e
m
ono
cryst
a
lli
n
e
pa
n
e
l
a
s
a
fun
ct
i
on
of
i
rr
ad
i
a
n
c
e
23
www.
inf
o
rmacjain
s
tal
.
c
o
m
.
pl
10/2025
Ź
r
ó
d
ł
a
c
i
ep
ł
a
i
e
n
e
r
g
ii
e
l
e
kt
r
yc
z
n
e
j
s
lightl
y
l
ow
er pea
k
p
ow
er value
s
c
o
mpared
t
o
the m
o
n
o
cr
y
s
talline panel
.
A
t 30°C, the
pea
k
p
ow
er reache
s
ar
o
und 85 W/m
2
,
w
hile at 70°C, it dr
o
p
s
t
o
appr
o
x
imatel
y
75
W/m
2
.
The decrea
s
e in p
ow
er
w
ith tempera-
ture i
s
evident, but the gap bet
w
een the
p
ow
er curve
s
f
o
r different temperature
s
i
s
s
o
me
w
hat
s
maller than that
o
b
s
erved in the
m
o
n
o
cr
y
s
talline panel
.
Thi
s
indicate
s
that
p
o
l
y
cr
y
s
talline panel
s
,
w
hile al
s
o
affected b
y
temperature ri
s
e, maintain a relativel
y
m
o
re
s
table p
ow
er
o
utput c
o
mpared t
o
m
o
n
o
cr
y
s
-
talline panel
s
,
w
hich align
s
w
ith their
k
n
ow
n
characteri
s
tic
s
o
f better thermal re
s
ilience
.
F
igure 8c
s
h
ow
s
the p
ow
er
o
utput
o
f the
am
o
rph
o
u
s
panel
.
The pea
k
p
ow
er value
s
are
s
ignificantl
y
l
ow
er, reaching ab
o
ut 9 W/m
2
at 30°C, 8
.
5 W/m
2
at 50°C, and ar
o
und
8 W/m
2
at 70°C
.
The p
ow
er difference be-
t
w
een temperature level
s
i
s
le
ss
pr
o
n
o
unced
c
o
mpared t
o
cr
y
s
talline panel
s
, indicating that
am
o
rph
o
u
s
s
ilic
o
n panel
s
e
x
hibit higher ther-
mal
s
tabilit
y.
The curve
s
hape
s
are
s
imilar, but
the relativel
y
flat pea
k
s
ugge
s
t
s
that am
o
r-
ph
o
u
s
panel
s
d
o
n
o
t re
s
p
o
nd a
s
s
en
s
itivel
y
t
o
temperature change
s
, maintaining m
o
re c
o
n-
s
i
s
tent p
ow
er
o
utput thr
o
ugh
o
ut the da
y.
F
igure 9
s
h
ow
s
the energ
y
y
ield
o
f differ-
ent PV panel
s
(m
o
n
o
cr
y
s
talline, p
o
l
y
cr
y
s
tal-
line, and am
o
rph
o
u
s
) f
o
r f
o
ur t
y
pical da
y
s
(Januar
y
,
A
pril, Jul
y
,
O
ct
o
ber), c
o
n
s
idering
three temperature c
o
nditi
o
n
s
(30°C, 50°C,
70°C)
.
M
o
n
o
cr
y
s
talline panel
s
c
o
n
s
i
s
tentl
y
generate the highe
s
t energ
y
, f
o
ll
ow
ed b
y
p
o
l
y
cr
y
s
talline,
w
hile am
o
rph
o
u
s
panel
s
pr
o
duce the lea
s
t
.
The energ
y
y
ield decrea
s
-
e
s
a
s
temperature ri
s
e
s
, particularl
y
f
o
r cr
y
s
-
talline panel
s
,
w
ith the large
s
t difference
o
b-
s
erved in Jul
y
, reflecting the negative impact
o
f high temperature
s
o
n efficienc
y.
F
igure 10 pre
s
ent
s
the t
o
tal annual energ
y
y
ield f
o
r each PV techn
o
l
o
g
y
under the
s
ame
temperature c
o
nditi
o
n
s
.
M
o
n
o
cr
y
s
talline pan-
el
s
achieve the highe
s
t annual
o
utput, ranging
fr
o
m 26,198 Wh at 30°C t
o
22,118 Wh at
70°C
.
P
o
l
y
cr
y
s
talline panel
s
al
s
o
perf
o
rm
w
ell, generating bet
w
een 23,611 Wh and
21,160 Wh
.
A
m
o
rph
o
u
s
panel
s
pr
o
duce
s
ig-
nificantl
y
le
ss
, ranging fr
o
m 2,952 Wh t
o
2,622 Wh
.
While m
o
n
o
cr
y
s
talline panel
s
are
the m
o
s
t efficient, the
y
are m
o
re
s
en
s
itive t
o
temperature increa
s
e
s
,
w
herea
s
am
o
rph
o
u
s
panel
s
maintain relativel
y
s
table perf
o
rmance
de
s
pite l
ow
er
o
verall
y
ield
s
.
The anal
y
s
i
s
perf
o
rmed u
s
ing the T
R
NS
Y
S
s
o
ft
w
are clearl
y
indicate
s
that the m
o
n
o
cr
y
s
-
talline panel
o
perating at a ma
x
imum tem-
perature
o
f 30°C i
s
the m
o
s
t efficient, achiev-
ing the highe
s
t annual energ
y
y
ield
.
H
ow
ever,
maintaining
s
uch a l
ow
temperature during
s
ummer and tran
s
iti
o
nal peri
o
d
s
i
s
challeng-
ing, even
w
ith inten
s
ive c
oo
ling
.
Theref
o
re, it
appear
s
m
o
re practical t
o
aim f
o
r a panel
temperature
o
f ar
o
und 40°C,
w
hich i
s
m
o
re
achievable under t
y
pical c
o
nditi
o
n
s
.
C
oo
ling the m
o
n
o
cr
y
s
talline panel t
o
ap-
pr
o
x
imatel
y
40°C
wo
uld re
s
ult in an e
s
timated
annual energ
y
y
ield
o
f ar
o
und 25,100 Wh,
w
hich i
s
o
nl
y
ab
o
ut 4
%
le
ss
c
o
mpared t
o
main-
taining the ideal temperature
o
f 30°C
.
I
n
c
o
mpari
s
o
n, u
s
ing a p
o
l
y
cr
y
s
talline panel at
40°C
wo
uld generate appr
o
x
imatel
y
22,950
Wh annuall
y
,
w
hich i
s
ab
o
ut 9
%
l
ow
er than the
m
o
n
o
cr
y
s
talline panel under the
s
ame tem-
perature c
o
nditi
o
n
s
.
The
s
e finding
s
s
ugge
s
t that
F
i
g
u
r
e
8
.
T
h
e
p
o
w
e
r
of
m
ono
cryst
a
lli
n
e
(
l
e
f
t –
a
)
p
o
l
ycryst
a
lli
n
e
(
r
i
g
h
t –
b
)
a
n
d
am
o
r
-
p
hou
s
(
b
o
tt
o
m
– c
)
pa
n
e
l
s
i
n
J
u
l
y 1
st
F
i
g
u
r
e
9
.
En
e
r
g
y y
i
e
l
d
fo
r ty
p
i
c
a
l
da
ys
F
i
g
u
r
e
10
.
En
e
r
g
y y
i
e
l
d
i
n
w
ho
l
e
y
ea
r
Ź
w
hile m
o
n
o
cr
y
s
talline panel
s
o
ffer the be
s
t
perf
o
rmance, maintaining
o
ptimal tempera-
ture
s
thr
o
ugh fea
s
ible c
oo
ling
s
trategie
s
i
s
cru-
cial t
o
ma
x
imi
z
ing energ
y
y
ield, e
s
peciall
y
in
w
armer climate
s
.
C
on
c
l
u
s
i
on
T
Thi
s
s
tud
y
c
o
mbined lab
o
rat
o
r
y
e
x
peri-
ment
s
and T
R
NS
Y
S-ba
s
ed
s
imulati
o
n
s
t
o
evaluate the temperature-dependent perf
o
r-
mance
o
f three ph
o
t
o
v
o
ltaic
techn
o
l
o
gie
s
:
m
o
n
o
cr
y
s
talline,
p
o
l
y
cr
y
s
talline, and am
o
r-ph
o
u
s
s
ilic
o
n
.
The
k
e
y
finding
s
are a
s
f
o
ll
ow
s
:
1
.
M
o
n
o
cr
y
s
talline PV panel
s
e
x
hibited the
highe
s
t efficienc
y
under
s
tandard c
o
ndi-ti
o
n
s
but
w
ere the m
o
s
t
s
en
s
itive t
o
tem-perature
increa
s
e
.
Their p
ow
er
o
utput dr
o
pped b
y
appr
o
x
imatel
y
15
.
5-15
.
9
%
w
hen the
s
urface
o
f the PV panel temper-
ature r
o
s
e fr
o
m 30°C t
o
70°C
.
2
.
P
o
l
y
cr
y
s
talline panel
s
s
h
ow
ed better ther-
mal re
s
ilience than m
o
n
o
cr
y
s
talline
o
ne
s
.
Their p
ow
er l
o
ss
e
s
o
ver the
s
ame temper-
ature range
w
ere l
ow
er, ranging fr
o
m
7
.
3
%
t
o
9
.
8
%
, ma
k
ing them m
o
re
s
table
under elevated temperature
s
.
3
.
A
m
o
rph
o
u
s
s
ilic
o
n panel
s
had the l
ow
e
s
t
efficienc
y
but dem
o
n
s
trated e
x
cellent
thermal
s
tabilit
y
,
w
ith p
ow
er reducti
o
n
s
limited t
o
7
.
7-9
.
1
%
acr
o
ss
the full tem-
perature range and minimal change
s
in
efficienc
y
and fill fact
o
r
.
4
.
Temperature c
o
efficient
s
(
α
,
β
,
γ
) de-
rived fr
o
m mea
s
urement
s
c
o
nfirmed
the
s
e trend
s
,
w
ith the m
o
s
t negative val-
ue
s
f
o
und f
o
r m
o
n
o
cr
y
s
talline panel
s
and the lea
s
t negative f
o
r am
o
rph
o
u
s
panel
s
, indicating di
s
tinct temperature
s
en
s
itivitie
s
acr
o
ss
techn
o
l
o
gie
s
.
5
.
E
fficienc
y
and fill fact
o
r decrea
s
ed
w
ith
ri
s
ing temperature f
o
r all techn
o
l
o
gie
s
.
The large
s
t decline
s
w
ere rec
o
rded f
o
r
m
o
n
o
cr
y
s
talline panel
s
,
w
hile am
o
r-
ph
o
u
s
panel
s
maintained nearl
y
c
o
n
s
tant
value
s
, reinf
o
rcing their
s
uitabilit
y
in ther-
mall
y
challenging envir
o
nment
s
.
6
.
T
R
NS
Y
S
s
imulati
o
n
s
s
h
ow
ed that m
o
n
o
-
cr
y
s
talline panel
s
achieved the highe
s
t
annual energ
y
y
ield under fav
o
rable
thermal c
o
nditi
o
n
s
.
A
panel temperature
o
f 40°C re
s
ulted in
o
nl
y
appr
o
x
.
4
%
energ
y
l
o
ss
c
o
mpared t
o
the ideal 30°C
s
cenari
o
, dem
o
n
s
trating the practical
fea
s
ibilit
y
o
f partial thermal manage-
ment
.
7
.
he
s
electi
o
n
o
f PV techn
o
l
o
g
y
s
h
o
uld be
guided n
o
t
o
nl
y
b
y
n
o
minal efficienc
y
but al
s
o
b
y
temperature-dependent per-
f
o
rmance characteri
s
tic
s
.
I
n h
o
t climate
s
o
r in
s
tallati
o
n
s
w
ith limited c
oo
ling p
o
-
tential, techn
o
l
o
gie
s
w
ith l
ow
er thermal
s
en
s
itivit
y
ma
y
o
ffer
s
uperi
o
r l
o
ng-term
energ
y
y
ield
.
The finding
s
o
f thi
s
s
tud
y
clearl
y
c
o
nfirm
24
that PV m
o
dule perf
o
rmance i
s
highl
y
s
en
s
i-
tive t
o
s
urface temperature variati
o
n
s
.
While
m
o
n
o
cr
y
s
talline panel
s
pr
o
vide the highe
s
t
efficienc
y
, the
y
al
s
o
s
uffer the greate
s
t per-
f
o
rmance decline under thermal
s
tre
ss
.
A
m
o
rph
o
u
s
panel
s
, th
o
ugh le
ss
efficient,
o
f-
fer greater
o
utput
s
tabilit
y
at elevated tem-
perature
s
.
The
s
e finding
s
empha
s
i
z
e the need
t
o
c
o
n
s
ider b
o
th electrical efficienc
y
and
thermal behavi
o
r
w
hen
s
electing PV techn
o
l-
o
gie
s
and de
s
igning
s
y
s
tem
s
f
o
r real-
wo
rld
c
o
nditi
o
n
s
, particularl
y
in
w
arm
o
r p
oo
rl
y
ventilated envir
o
nment
s
.
F
uture re
s
earch
s
h
o
uld f
o
cu
s
o
n
o
ptimi
z
-
ing PV
s
y
s
tem de
s
ign b
y
integrating predic-
tive temperature management
s
trategie
s
.
O
ne pr
o
mi
s
ing appr
o
ach i
s
t
o
devel
o
p
adaptive alg
o
rithm
s
that d
y
namicall
y
adju
s
t
panel
o
rientati
o
n and c
oo
ling mechani
s
m
s
ba
s
ed
o
n real-time
w
eather data, ma
x
imi
z
-
ing energ
y
y
ield
w
hile minimi
z
ing thermal
l
o
ss
e
s
.
A
dditi
o
nall
y
, e
x
pl
o
ring inn
o
vative
material
s
f
o
r PV panel
s
that inherentl
y
p
o
s
-
s
e
ss
l
ow
er temperature c
o
efficient
s
c
o
uld
s
ignificantl
y
enhance perf
o
rmance
s
tabilit
y
under fluctuating temperature c
o
nditi
o
n
s
.
M
o
re
o
ver, l
o
ng-term field
s
tudie
s
acr
o
ss
diver
s
e climatic regi
o
n
s
are e
ss
ential t
o
validate
lab
o
rat
o
r
y
and
s
imulati
o
n finding
s
, pr
o
viding
in
s
ight
s
int
o
real-
wo
rld perf
o
rmance variabilit
y.
I
nve
s
tigating h
y
brid
s
y
s
tem
s
that c
o
mbine PV
techn
o
l
o
g
y
w
ith pa
ss
ive c
oo
ling element
s
,
s
uch a
s
pha
s
e change material
s
(PC
Ms
)
o
r
natural ventilati
o
n
s
y
s
tem
s
, c
o
uld
o
ffer
s
u
s
tain-
able and c
o
s
t-effective
s
o
luti
o
n
s
f
o
r maintain-
ing
o
ptimal
o
perating temperature
s
.
A
ck
no
w
l
edgme
n
t
Thi
s
wo
r
k
w
a
s
carried
o
ut under Sub-
venti
o
n n
o.
16
.
16
.
210
.
476 fr
o
m the
F
acult
y
o
f
E
nerg
y
and
F
uel
s
.
A
G
H Univer
s
it
y
o
f
Kra
kow.
Thi
s
re
s
earch pr
o
ject
w
a
s
s
up-p
o
rt-
ed/partl
y
s
upp
o
rted b
y
the pr
o
gram
“
Ex
-
cellence initiative
—
re
s
earch univer
s
it
y”
f
o
r
the
A
G
H Univer
s
it
y
o
f Kra
kow.
N
o
me
n
c
l
a
t
u
r
e
MPP
S
C
x
MPP
MPP
O
C
a, b
–
line parameter
s
FF
–
fill fact
o
r
I
–
current at
M
PP,
[
m
A]
I
–
s
h
o
rt-circuit current,
[
m
A]
I
–
irradiance
[
W/m
2
]
M
PP
–
ma
x
imum p
ow
er p
o
int
PV
–
ph
o
t
o
v
o
ltaic
P
–
ma
x
imum p
ow
er,
[
W
]
T
–
temperature,
[
K
]
V
–
v
o
ltage at
M
PP,
[
V
]
V
–
o
pen-circuit v
o
ltage,
[
V
]
α
–
s
h
o
rt-circuit current temperature
c
o
efficient,
[
m
A
/K
]
,
[
%
/K
]
β
–
o
pen-circuit v
o
ltage temperature
c
o
efficient,
[
V/K
]
,
[
%
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]
γ
–
p
ow
er temperature c
o
efficient,
[
W/K
]
,
[
%
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]
η
–
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y
,
[
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]
R
E
F
E
R
E
N C
E
S
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“
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:
//
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iea
.o
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y
-
s
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s
tem/rene-
w
able
s
/
s
o
lar-pv
.”
[
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]
I
R
E
N
A
,
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E
N
E
W
A
B
L
E
P
O
W
E
R
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I
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N
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t
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v
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:
A
revie
w
o
f efficienc
y
/p
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s
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lar irradiati
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i
s
o
f
a PV micr
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s
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n in a
s
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y
h
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u
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e
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“
Ph
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o
f
s
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,
”
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M
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t
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v
o
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s
y
s
tem
s
f
o
r enhan-
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s
o
lar cell
s
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p in cr
y
s
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s
ilic
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n
s
o
lar
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,
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s
t
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o
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y
s
tem
D
edicated t
o
Ph
o
t
o
v
o
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Panel
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,
”
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v
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oo
f
s
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A
n e
x
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n
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f
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y
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i
s
o
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s
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”
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Ex
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n
A
ir C
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S
y
s
tem
D
edicated t
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Ph
o
t
o
v
o
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s
,
”
E
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a
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“
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rmance
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ptimi
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ati
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n
o
f
w
ater-ba
s
ed PVT
c
o
llect
o
r
w
ith dual tan
k
s
:
A
Stairca
s
e C
oo
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M
eth
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ati
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n
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r-
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o
f PV-PC
M
r
oo
f in China,
”
I
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i
s
o
f nan
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s
y
s
tem ba
s
ed
o
n full
c
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upling
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f light heat and electricit
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E
nhan-
cing the pr
o
ductivit
y
o
f PV panel u
s
ing c
oo
ling
meth
o
d
:
Ex
perimental and
s
imulati
o
n inve
s
tiga-
ti
o
n in J
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n
