The increa
s
ing u
s
e
o
f lithium-i
o
n batterie
s
ha
s
made their fire preventi
o
n and pr
o
tecti
o
n a critical a
s
pect f
o
r u
s
er
s
.
Thi
s
article pre
s
ent
s
the applicati
o
n
o
f c
o
mputati
o
nal fluid d
y
namic
s
(C
F
D
) m
o
delling
o
f energ
y
s
t
o
rage r
oo
m fire and it
s
l
ow
-pre
ss
ure
w
ater mi
s
t e
x
tingui
s
hing
.
R
eal-
s
cale e
x
periment
s
and C
F
D
s
imulati
o
n
s
indicated that
w
ith
o
ut fire
e
x
tingui
s
hing, batter
y
fire
s
can lead t
o
unc
o
ntr
o
lled temperature ri
s
e
s
, jet flame
s
,
o
r e
x
pl
o
s
i
o
n
s
.
While the in
s
tallati
o
n
o
f
w
ater mi
s
t
s
y
s
tem
s
can prevent the fire pr
o
pagati
o
n, l
ow
er the temperature, and c
o
ntr
o
l fire pr
o
pagati
o
n
o
n adjacent
m
o
dule
s
, even in c
o
mple
x
batter
y
s
y
s
tem
s
.
The C
F
D
s
imulati
o
n
s
pr
o
ved the effectivene
ss
o
f thi
s
appr
o
ach in the de
s
ign
o
f
w
ater mi
s
t
s
y
s
tem
s
in energ
y
s
t
o
rage r
oo
m
s
.
The article pre
s
ent
s
a
s
tructured re
s
earch pr
o
cedure in
w
hich the
c
o
mputer m
o
del all
ow
s
f
o
r the anal
y
s
i
s
o
f fire devel
o
pment fr
o
m a
s
ingle cell t
o
a full-
s
cale energ
y
s
t
o
rage facilit
y.
Ke
ywo
rd
s
:
batter
y
fire; energ
y
s
t
o
rage r
oo
m;
C
F
D
;
Wra
z
z
d
y
namic
z
n
y
m r
o
z
wo
jem techn
o
l
o
gii maga
z
y
n
ow
ania energii,
o
part
y
ch na bateriach lit
owo
-j
o
n
owy
ch, pr
o
-
blem ich be
z
piec
z
eń
s
t
w
a p
o
ż
ar
ow
eg
o
nabiera c
o
ra
z
w
ię
k
s
z
eg
o
z
nac
z
enia
.
B
aterie te,
z
a
w
ierające palne ele
k
tr
o
lit
y
o
rganic
z
ne,
w
w
arun
k
ach pr
z
egr
z
ania, pr
z
ecią
ż
enia lub u
s
z
ko
d
z
eń mechanic
z
n
y
ch m
o
gą ulec
z
ja
w
i
s
k
u uciec
z
k
i
termic
z
nej, pr
ow
ad
z
ącej d
o
emi
s
ji ga
z
ów
,
z
apł
o
n
ów
w
t
ó
rn
y
ch, a na
w
et e
k
s
pl
o
z
ji
.
A
rt
yk
uł pre
z
entuje
wy
ni
k
i badań
numer
y
c
z
n
y
ch (C
F
D
) d
o
t
y
c
z
ąc
y
ch
s
k
utec
z
n
o
ś
ci
s
y
s
tem
ów
ga
s
z
enia
z
u
ż
y
ciem ni
s
ko
ci
ś
nieni
ow
ej mgł
y
wo
dnej
w
p
o
mie
s
z
c
z
eniach maga
z
y
n
ów
energii
.
B
adania
wyk
a
z
ał
y
,
ż
e ch
o
ć mgła
wo
dna nie
z
atr
z
y
muje
s
ameg
o
pr
o
ce
s
u
uciec
z
k
i termic
z
nej
w
p
o
jed
y
nc
z
y
m
o
gni
w
ie,
z
nac
z
ąc
o
o
granic
z
a pr
o
pagację
o
gnia,
o
bni
ż
a temperaturę
o
ra
z
redu-
k
uje r
y
z
yko
z
apalenia
s
ą
s
iednich m
o
duł
ów.
M
o
del
ow
anie C
F
D
w
pr
o
gramie
F
ire
Dy
namic
s
Simulat
o
r p
o
z
wo
lił
o
na
o
d
w
z
o
r
ow
anie
w
arun
ków
p
o
ż
ar
owy
ch
o
d p
o
z
i
o
mu p
o
jed
y
nc
z
eg
o
o
gni
w
a, a
ż
p
o
s
k
alę pełneg
o
p
o
mie
s
z
c
z
enia
maga
z
y
n
ow
eg
o
, p
o
t
w
ierd
z
ając
wy
s
ok
ą
s
k
utec
z
n
o
ś
ć mgł
y
wo
dnej
w
ko
ntr
o
l
ow
aniu r
o
z
wo
ju p
o
ż
aru
.
W
y
ni
k
i badań
p
o
d
k
re
ś
lają
ko
niec
z
n
o
ś
ć
s
t
o
s
ow
ania
s
y
s
tem
ów
ga
s
z
enia ja
ko
u
z
upełnienia
z
abe
z
piec
z
eń
w
e
w
nętr
z
n
y
ch baterii
o
ra
z
w
s
k
a
z
ują na m
o
ż
li
wo
ś
ci dal
s
z
ej
o
pt
y
mali
z
acji r
o
z
k
ładu d
y
s
z
i
w
iel
ko
ś
ci
k
r
o
pel
w
pr
o
je
k
t
ow
aniu in
s
talacji
o
chr
o
n
y
pr
z
eci
w
p
o
ż
ar
ow
ej dla maga
z
y
n
ów
energii
z
a p
o
m
o
cą
s
y
mulacji
ko
mputer
owy
ch C
F
D.
Sł
ow
a Kluc
z
ow
e
:
baterie, p
o
ż
ar, maga
z
y
n energii,
C
F
D
I
n
t
r
o
d
u
ct
i
on
Lithium-i
o
n batterie
s
(Li
Bs
) are
w
idel
y
u
s
ed in vari
o
u
s
energ
y
s
y
s
tem
s
.
The
y
c
o
n-
tain flammable
o
rganic electr
o
l
y
te
s
,
w
hich
p
o
s
e a
s
ignificant ri
s
k
o
f igniti
o
n in ca
s
e
s
o
f
unc
o
ntr
o
lled temperature increa
s
e
s
,
o
ver-
charging,
o
r mechanical damage t
o
the
batter
y
[
1
]
,
[
2
].
A
s
c
o
nfirmed b
y
numer
o
u
s
s
tudie
s
,
w
ith the rapid increa
s
e in batter
y
applicati
o
n
s
, thermal pr
o
pagati
o
n be-
c
o
me
s
a
s
eri
o
u
s
c
o
ncern f
o
r fire ri
s
k
[
3
].
Unf
o
rtunatel
y
, the actual fire pr
o
tecti
o
n
mea
s
ure
s
remain un
s
ati
s
fact
o
r
y.
B
e
yo
nd
impr
o
ving batter
y
fire preventi
o
n meth
o
d
s
,
their fire pr
o
tecti
o
n c
o
ntinu
o
u
s
l
y
pre
s
ent
s
a
s
ignificant challenge
.
Thermal runa
w
a
y
(T
R
)
o
ccur
s
m
o
s
tl
y
w
hen the internal
s
epa-
rat
o
r bet
w
een the cath
o
de and an
o
de
bec
o
me
s
damaged, leading t
o
a vi
o
lent
e
x
o
thermic reacti
o
n and the vap
o
ri
s
ati
o
n
o
f the electr
o
l
y
te
.
A
lth
o
ugh vari
o
u
s
c
o
m-
m
o
n agent
s
c
o
uld p
o
tentiall
y
e
x
tingui
s
h
the
s
e fire
s
, in practice, the effect
s
o
f T
R
cau
s
e far m
o
re pr
o
blem
s
than
o
ther t
y
pe
s
o
f fire, requiring pr
o
l
o
nged c
oo
ling t
o
3
c
o
ntr
o
l cell
s
and prevent re-igniti
o
n
[
4
].
The T
R
phen
o
men
o
n i
s
t
y
picall
y
acc
o
mpa-
nied b
y
o
ne
o
r m
o
re
o
f the f
o
ll
ow
ing
event
s
:
the relea
s
e
o
f
s
m
ok
e and ga
s
, the
rupture
o
r e
x
pl
o
s
i
o
n
o
f the cell ca
s
ing, ga
s
e
x
pl
o
s
i
o
n
s
, and the
s
pread
o
f heat t
o
ad-
jacent Li
B
cell
s
[
5
]
,
[
6
].
R
ecent inve
s
tigati
o
n
s
have
s
h
ow
n that
ga
s
e
s
s
uch a
s
H
F
, P
OF
, and C
O
are fre-
quentl
y
relea
s
ed during thermal runa
w
a
y
,
repre
s
enting b
o
th acute t
o
x
icit
y
ha
z
ard
s
and earl
y
detecti
o
n
o
pp
o
rtunitie
s
[
7
].
The
s
e finding
s
under
s
c
o
re the imp
o
rtance
M
ateu
s
z
B
r
z
e
z
s
k
i http
s
:
//
o
rcid
.o
rg/0009-0008-8633-3602
L
o
d
z
Univer
s
it
y
o
f Techn
o
l
o
g
y
,
F
acult
y
o
f
M
echanical
E
ngineering,
I
nternati
o
nal
F
acult
y
o
f
E
ngineering, P
o
land, 257134
@
edu
.
p
.
l
o
d
z
.
pl,
pr
o
f
.
dr hab
.
in
ż
.
Do
r
o
ta
B
r
z
e
z
iń
s
k
a http
s
:
//
o
rcid
.o
rg/0000-0003-4615-4454
L
o
d
z
Univer
s
it
y
o
f Techn
o
l
o
g
y
,
F
acult
y
o
f Pr
o
ce
ss
and
E
nvir
o
nmental
E
ngineering,
D
epartment
o
f
E
nvir
o
nmental
E
ngineering K95, P
o
land,
in
ż
.
arch
.
M
aria
B
r
z
e
z
iń
s
k
a http
s
:
//
o
rcid
.o
rg/0000-0002-9095-817
X
G
hent Univer
s
it
y
,
B
elgium,
F
acult
y
o
f
E
ngineering and
A
rchitecture,
M
aria
.
B
r
z
e
z
in
s
k
a
@
U
G
ent
.
be; L
o
d
z
Univer
s
it
y
o
f Techn
o
l
o
g
y
,
F
acult
y
o
f Civil
E
ngineering,
A
rchitecture and
E
nvir
o
nmental
E
ngineering, P
o
land
.
A
dre
s
d
o
ko
re
s
p
o
ndencji/ C
o
rre
s
p
o
nding auth
o
r
:
d
o
r
o
ta
.
br
z
e
z
in
s
k
a
@
p
.
l
o
d
z
.
pl
CF
D
m
o
de
lli
n
g
of
e
n
e
r
g
y st
o
r
age
r
oo
m
f
i
r
e
w
i
t
h
l
o
w
-
p
r
e
ss
u
r
e
w
a
t
e
r
m
i
st
e
x
t
i
n
g
u
i
s
h
i
n
g
Mo
de
l
o
w
a
n
i
e
CF
D
p
o
ż
a
r
ó
w
maga
z
y
nó
w
e
n
e
r
g
ii
z
syst
emam
i
ga
s
z
e
n
i
a
mg
ł
ą
w
o
d
n
ą
M
A
T
E
US
Z
B
R
Z
E
ZI
ŃSK
I
,
D
O
R
O
T
A
B
R
Z
E
ZI
ŃSK
A
,
M
AR
I
A
B
R
Z
E
ZI
ŃSK
A
DO
I 10
.
36119/15
.
2025
.
10
.
3
I
n
st
a
l
a
c
j
e
p
.
p
o
ż
.
/F
ir
e
p
r
o
t
e
ct
i
on
i
n
st
a
ll
a
t
i
on
s
www.
inf
o
rmacjain
s
tal
.
c
o
m
.
pl10/202525
I
n
st
a
l
a
c
j
e
p
.
p
o
ż
.
2610/2025
www.
inf
o
rmacjain
s
tal
.
c
o
m
.
pl
I
o
f detecti
o
n
s
y
s
tem
s
that can identif
y
emi
s
-
s
i
o
n
s
bef
o
re igniti
o
n
o
ccur
s
[
8
].
F
ire
s
in Li
B
batterie
s
can
s
tart due t
o
s
everal c
o
nditi
o
n
s
that lead t
o
T
R
, pre
s
ent-
ed in
F
ig
.
1
.
The
y
include electrical abu
s
e,
s
uch a
s
o
vercharging
o
r
o
verdi
s
charging,
w
hich can cau
s
e lithium plating
o
r dendrite
f
o
rmati
o
n, re
s
ulting in internal
s
h
o
rt circuit
s
.
Thermal abu
s
e,
w
here temperature
s
reach
critical p
o
int
s
, can cau
s
e the dec
o
mp
o
s
i-
ti
o
n
o
f batter
y
c
o
mp
o
nent
s
, relea
s
ing heat
and e
x
acerbating the
s
ituati
o
n
.
M
echani-
cal abu
s
e,
s
uch a
s
impact
o
r bending, can
c
o
mpr
o
mi
s
e the batter
y
s
s
tructure, leading
t
o
s
h
o
rt circuit
s
.
I
nternal
s
h
o
rt circuit
s
can
al
s
o
o
ccur due t
o
manufacturing defect
s
o
r
s
eparat
o
r damage, all
ow
ing f
o
r an
o
de-
cath
o
de c
o
ntact
.
The
s
e c
o
nditi
o
n
s
increa
s
e
cell temperature, trigger e
x
o
thermic reac-
ti
o
n
s
, and create a feedbac
k
l
oo
p
o
f heat
and pre
ss
ure build-up, ultimatel
y
leading
t
o
cell rupture and p
o
tentiall
y
re
s
ulting in
fire
[
9
].
A
lth
o
ugh lithium ir
o
n ph
o
s
phate batter-
ie
s
(L
F
P) are
o
ften mar
k
eted a
s
s
afer alter-
native
s
, recent large-
s
cale incident
s
have
dem
o
n
s
trated that the
y
remain
s
u
s
ceptible
t
o
thermal runa
w
a
y
, fire, and e
x
pl
o
s
i
o
n
s
under certain abu
s
e c
o
nditi
o
n
s
[
10
].
E
ven
w
ith numer
o
u
s
internal batter
y
pr
o
tecti
o
n mechani
s
m
s
in place, their fire
s
cann
o
t al
w
a
y
s
be prevented
.
F
o
r thi
s
rea-
s
o
n, guideline
s
f
o
r batter
y
energ
y
s
t
o
rage
s
y
s
tem
s
increa
s
ingl
y
empha
s
i
s
e ri
s
k
a
ss
e
ss
-
ment
.
I
ncrea
s
ing
s
eparati
o
n di
s
tance
s
, ga
s
m
o
nit
o
ring, and integrati
o
n
o
f fire
s
uppre
s
-
s
i
o
n
s
y
s
tem
s
,
s
uch a
s
w
ater mi
s
t
o
r
s
prin-
k
ler
s
are applied
[
11
].
R
e
s
earch ha
s
s
h
ow
n
that
w
hile
s
o
me cell chemi
s
trie
s
,
s
uch a
s
L
F
P, are le
ss
reactive, n
o
chemi
s
tr
y
can be
c
o
n
s
idered c
o
mpletel
y
s
afe, and large-
s
cale energ
y
s
t
o
rage fire
s
have dem
o
n-
s
trated
s
evere pr
o
pagati
o
n even in L
F
P-
ba
s
ed
s
y
s
tem
s
[
11
].
Theref
o
re, e
x
ternal fire
e
x
tingui
s
hing
s
y
s
tem
s
are nece
ss
ar
y
f
o
r
2
2
vari
o
u
s
applicati
o
n
s
o
f Li
Bs
.
Chemical aer-
o
s
o
l
s
and
w
ater are
o
ften rec
o
mmended
a
s
the m
o
s
t effective agent
s
, alth
o
ugh C
O
and f
o
am
s
y
s
tem
s
are
s
o
metime
s
al
s
o
pr
o
-
p
o
s
ed
[
12
].
H
ow
ever, C
O
and chemical
aer
o
s
o
l
s
have been f
o
und t
o
be in
s
uffi-
cientl
y
effective due t
o
their l
ow
c
oo
ling
effect
[
13
]
,
[
14
].
I
n c
o
nclu
s
i
o
n, alth
o
ugh
w
ater cann
o
t brea
k
the iniciated thermal
runa
w
a
y
pr
o
ce
ss
, it can c
oo
l the
s
urr
o
und-
ing envir
o
nment and prevent adjacent cell
s
fr
o
m heating and igniting
[
14
]
,
[
15
].
There-
f
o
re, thi
s
s
tud
y
e
x
amined the effectivene
ss
o
f e
x
tingui
s
hing Li
B
fire
s
u
s
ing
w
ater mi
s
t
.
The aim
w
a
s
t
o
anal
y
s
e the effectivene
ss
o
f
s
uppre
ss
i
o
n and c
o
ntr
o
l
o
f the fire b
y
pre-
venting
s
pread t
o
neighb
o
uring m
o
dule
s
[
16
]
,
[
17
].
I
n additi
o
n t
o
real fire e
x
periment
s
,
c
o
mputer
s
imulati
o
n
s
are
w
idel
y
u
s
ed
.
The
F
ire
Dy
namic
s
Simulat
o
r (
F
D
S) i
s
a c
o
mpu-
tati
o
nal fluid d
y
namic
s
(C
F
D
) m
o
del devel-
o
ped b
y
N
I
ST t
o
s
imulate the m
o
vement
o
f
fire and
s
m
ok
e
.
F
D
S i
s
u
s
ed in fire
s
afet
y
engineering t
o
predict fire behavi
o
ur and
it
s
impact
o
n building
s
o
r envir
o
nment
s
.
F
D
S pr
o
vide
s
in
s
ight int
o
s
m
ok
e devel
o
p-
ment, heat tran
s
fer, and the
s
pread
o
f t
o
x
ic
ga
s
e
s
during a fire
.
I
t al
s
o
all
ow
s
vi
s
uali
s
-
2
ati
o
n t
o
dem
o
n
s
trate h
ow
a fire pr
o
gre
ss
e
s
o
ver time in c
o
mple
x
envir
o
nment
s
.
I
n the
F
D
S, therm
o
d
y
namic
s
i
s
m
o
delled u
s
ing
the Navier-St
ok
e
s
equati
o
n
s
f
o
r l
ow
-
s
peed, thermall
y
driven fl
ow
s
, inc
o
rp
o
rat-
ing the ideal ga
s
la
w
t
o
relate temperature,
pre
ss
ure, and den
s
it
y.
Heat tran
s
fer i
s
facil-
itated b
y
c
o
nvecti
o
n, c
o
nducti
o
n, and ra-
diati
o
n,
w
hile c
o
mbu
s
ti
o
n pr
o
ce
ss
e
s
c
o
n-
tribute heat and influence the ga
s
tempera-
ture
.
The ma
ss
tran
s
fer m
o
del u
s
e
s
advec-
ti
o
n-diffu
s
i
o
n equati
o
n
s
t
o
s
imulate the
m
o
vement
o
f ga
s
e
s
,
s
uch a
s
o
x
y
gen,
C
O
, and
s
m
ok
e, and trac
k
s
the fuel-
o
x
y
-
gen mi
x
ture during c
o
mbu
s
ti
o
n
.
F
D
S can
al
s
o
m
o
del evap
o
rati
o
n and c
o
nden
s
ati
o
n
pr
o
ce
ss
e
s
, and
s
imulate ma
ss
tran
s
fer be-
t
w
een pha
s
e
s
,
s
uch a
s
the evap
o
rati
o
n
o
f
liquid fuel
s
int
o
vap
o
ur
.
The
s
o
ft
w
are u
s
e
s
rectilinear c
o
mputati
o
nal me
s
he
s
t
o
divide
the
s
imulati
o
n
s
pace int
o
a grid
o
f rectan-
gular cell
s
, thereb
y
s
implif
y
ing the numeri-
cal
s
o
luti
o
n
o
f fluid d
y
namic
s
equati
o
n
s
.
C
o
n
s
idering all the capabilitie
s
o
f the
F
D
S
pr
o
gramme, it can be c
o
n
s
idered an ap-
pr
o
priate t
oo
l t
o
m
o
del the c
o
nditi
o
n
s
o
f
batter
y
fire devel
o
pment and it
s
e
x
tingui
s
h-
ment u
s
ing
w
ater mi
s
t
.
R
ecent fire
s
afet
y
re
s
earch c
o
nfirm
s
that C
F
D
t
oo
l
s
,
s
uch a
s
F
D
S, are increa
s
ingl
y
being applied t
o
evaluate
w
ater mi
s
t
s
y
s
tem
s
in batter
y
s
t
o
r-
age facilitie
s
, dem
o
n
s
trating h
ow
numeri-
cal m
o
delling
s
upp
o
rt
s
the de
s
ign
o
f venti-
lati
o
n,
s
uppre
ss
i
o
n, and e
x
pl
o
s
i
o
n pr
o
tec-
ti
o
n
[
10
].
H
ow
ever, it i
s
nece
ss
ar
y
t
o
be
a
w
are that the
s
imulati
o
n
s
accurac
y
i
s
highl
y
dependent
o
n me
s
h re
s
o
luti
o
n; finer
me
s
he
s
pr
o
vide m
o
re detailed re
s
ult
s
, but
require m
o
re c
o
mputati
o
nal re
s
o
urce
s
.
Theref
o
re, de
s
igning an effective me
s
h in-
v
o
lve
s
balancing detail and c
o
mputati
o
nal
efficienc
y
,
o
ften requiring iterative adju
s
t-
ment
s
t
o
o
ptimi
s
e
s
imulati
o
n perf
o
rmance
and accurac
y
[
18
].
The
s
ubject
o
f the re
s
earch pre
s
ented in
thi
s
article
w
a
s
t
o
pre
s
ent the
s
imulati
o
n
s
o
f
defined fire
s
cenari
o
s
in energ
y
s
t
o
rage
r
oo
m
s
,
s
tarting fr
o
m a
s
mall
s
cale
a
s
in-
gle cell fire
and reaching a large
s
cale
a
s
t
o
rage r
oo
m fire
w
ith a dem
o
n
s
trati
o
n
o
f
w
ater mi
s
t effectivene
ss
[
19
].
The
s
imula-
ti
o
n
s
a
ss
umpti
o
n
s
ba
s
ed
o
n the e
x
peri-
mental re
s
ult
s
, pre
s
ented in
[
20
]
,
[
21
].
M
a
t
e
ri
a
l
s
a
n
d
M
e
t
ho
d
s
of
t
h
e
F
i
r
e
S
i
m
u
l
a
t
i
on
s
Thi
s
chapter de
s
cribe
s
the re
s
earch
meth
o
d
s
and t
oo
l
s
u
s
ed t
o
carr
y
o
ut batter
y
fire e
x
perimental te
s
t
s
,
w
hich
w
ere then
u
s
ed t
o
devel
o
p a C
F
D
c
o
mputer m
o
del
F
ire
Dy
namic
s
Simulat
o
r (
F
D
S)
.
The pr
o
-
gram
F
D
S i
s
the m
o
s
t
o
ften ch
o
s
en b
y
u
s
er
s
,
and currentl
y
ha
s
s
everal th
o
u
s
and u
s
er
s
,
and in thi
s
field i
s
the be
s
t-verified ar
o
und
o
f
all
s
imulati
o
n pr
o
gram
s
[
21
]
,
[
22
]
,
[
23
].
D
ue t
o
the ab
o
ve, the
F
D
S
w
a
s
ch
o
s
en f
o
r
the
s
imulati
o
n
s
pre
s
ented bel
ow.
The pr
o
ject
w
a
s
divided int
o
t
wo
s
tage
s
:
l
Small
s
cale
the
s
ingle cell fire te
s
t;
l
Large-
s
cale
s
t
o
rage r
oo
m
w
ith
w
ater
mi
s
t e
x
tingui
s
hing fire te
s
t
s
.
D
etail
s
o
f the
wo
r
k
that
w
a
s
carried
o
ut
are de
s
cribed bel
ow.
S
i
n
g
l
e
c
e
ll
f
ir
e
s
i
m
u
l
a
t
i
on
The
s
ingle cell m
o
del
w
a
s
perf
o
rmed
ba
s
ed
o
n the a
ss
umpti
o
n
o
f the literature,
the t
o
tal H
RR
o
f thi
s
cell
w
a
s
ta
k
en a
s
30-
F
i
g
u
r
e
1
.
B
a
tt
e
ry
f
ir
e
r
ea
s
on
s
Rys
un
e
k 1
.
P
r
z
yc
z
y
n
y
p
o
ż
a
r
ó
w
ba
t
e
r
ii
www.
inf
o
rmacjain
s
tal
.
c
o
m
.
pl
10/202527
I
n
st
a
l
a
c
j
e
p
.
p
o
ż
.
40
k
W
[
1
]
, and the
s
ingle cell fire 9
F
ig 2)
and it
s
curve
w
a
s
m
o
delled (
F
ig
.
3)
.
S
i
n
g
l
e
m
o
d
u
l
e
f
ir
e
s
i
m
u
l
a
t
i
on
T
o
achieve reliable re
s
ult
s
o
f fire devel-
o
pment in a
s
ingle batter
y
element, the
heat relea
s
e rate (H
RR
) curve
w
a
s
pre-
s
cribed u
s
ing a
s
ingle cell fire te
s
t m
o
delled
b
y
F
D
S
.
U
s
ing that e
s
timated curve, the
auth
o
r
s
ran t
wo
C
F
D
s
imulati
o
n
s
o
f entire
m
o
dule
s
built
o
f 59 cell
s
, repre
s
ented an
e
x
emplar batter
y
m
o
dule
.
Their g
o
al
w
a
s
t
o
predict fire curve
s
f
o
r
o
ne m
o
dule fire in
t
wo
s
cenari
o
s
:
central and edge igniti
o
n
(
F
ig
.
4)
.
I
n b
o
th
s
cenari
o
s
, the igniti
o
n
o
f
the fir
s
t cell
w
a
s
predefined,
w
hile the fire in
the ne
x
t cell
s
s
tarted aut
o
maticall
y
w
hen
their internal therm
o
c
o
uple
s
(THCP)
reached 500°C
.
E
ach cell had 4 THCP
s
in
each c
o
rner
.
The
s
pread
o
f the fire
o
f the
individual cell
w
a
s
ba
s
ed
o
n the H
RR
curve
previ
o
u
s
l
y
defined f
o
r the
s
ingle cell
.
The
fire
s
o
f m
o
dule
s
in b
o
th
s
cenari
o
s
are pre-
s
ented in
F
ig
s
.
5 and 6, and their fire
curve
s
can be
s
een in
F
ig
s
.
7, 8
.
L
a
r
ge
-
sc
a
l
e
st
o
r
age
r
oo
m
f
ir
e
CF
D
s
i
m
u
l
a
t
i
on
s
B
a
s
ed
o
n the preliminar
y
s
imulati
o
n
re
s
ult
s
, the large
s
cale re
s
earch
s
tage
w
a
s
reali
s
ed
.
I
t
s
imulated a full energ
y
s
t
o
rage
r
oo
m fire and c
o
mpared it
s
pr
o
pagati
o
n in
dependence
o
n
w
ater mi
s
t e
x
tingui
s
hing
.
F
ig
.
9 pre
s
ent
s
the m
o
delled
s
t
o
rage r
oo
m
F
i
g
u
r
e
2
.
CF
D
s
i
m
u
l
a
t
i
on
of
t
h
e
s
i
n
g
l
e
c
e
ll
f
i
r
e
Rys
un
e
k 2
.
S
y
m
u
l
a
c
j
a
CF
D
p
o
ż
a
r
u
p
o
j
ed
y
n
c
z
eg
o
o
g
n
i
w
a
F
i
g
u
r
e
3
.
H
RR
c
u
r
v
e
a
c
h
i
e
v
ed
i
n
t
h
e
s
i
n
g
l
e
-
c
e
ll
CF
D
s
i
m
u
-
l
a
t
i
on
Rys
un
e
k 3
.
K
r
z
yw
a
p
o
ż
a
r
u
p
o
j
ed
y
n
c
z
eg
o
o
g
n
i
-
w
a
n
a
p
o
d
st
a
w
i
e
sy
m
u
l
a
c
ji
CF
D
F
i
g
u
r
e
7
.
H
RR
c
u
r
v
e
f
r
o
m
C
D
F s
i
m
u
l
a
t
i
on
of
a
s
i
n
g
l
e
m
o
-
d
u
l
e
w
i
t
h
c
e
n
tr
a
l
i
g
n
i
t
i
on
Rys
un
e
k 7
.
Kr
z
yw
a
p
o
ż
a
r
u
m
o
d
u
ł
u
n
a
p
o
d
st
a
-
w
i
e
sy
m
u
l
a
c
ji
CF
D
p
r
z
y
z
ap
ł
on
i
e
c
e
n
tr
a
l
n
y
m
F
i
g
u
r
e
8
.
H
RR
c
u
r
v
e
f
r
o
m
t
h
e
C
D
F s
i
m
u
l
a
t
i
on
of
a
s
i
n
g
l
e
m
o
d
u
l
e
w
i
t
h
edge
i
g
n
i
t
i
on
Rys
un
e
k 8
.
Kr
z
yw
a
p
o
ż
a
r
u
m
o
d
u
ł
u
n
a
p
o
d
st
a
-
w
i
e
sy
m
u
l
a
c
ji
CF
D
p
r
z
y
z
ap
ł
on
i
e
skr
a
j
n
y
m
2 s
14 s18 s
8 s15 s32 s
8 s25 s40 s
a
)
b
)
F
i
g
u
r
e
4
.
F
i
r
e
s
p
r
ead
i
n
t
h
e
m
o
d
u
l
e
:
a
)
c
e
n
tr
a
l
i
g
n
i
t
i
on
,
b
)
edge
i
g
n
i
t
i
on
Rys
un
e
k 4
.
R
o
z
p
r
z
e
str
z
e
n
i
a
n
i
e
s
i
ę
p
o
ż
a
r
u
w
m
o
d
u
l
e
:
a
)
z
ap
ł
on
c
e
n
tr
a
l
n
y
,
b
)
z
ap
ł
on
skr
a
j
n
y
F
i
g
u
r
e
5
.
CF
D
s
i
m
u
l
a
t
i
on
of
s
i
n
g
l
e
m
o
d
u
l
e
f
i
r
e
w
i
t
h
c
e
n
tr
a
l
i
g
n
i
t
i
on
Rys
un
e
k 5
.
S
y
m
u
l
a
c
j
a
CF
D
r
o
z
p
r
z
e
str
z
e
n
i
a
n
i
a
s
i
ę
p
o
ż
a
r
u
w
m
o
d
u
l
e
p
r
z
y
z
ap
ł
on
i
e
c
e
n
tr
a
l
n
y
m
F
i
g
u
r
e
6
.
CF
D
s
i
m
u
l
a
t
i
on
of
t
h
e
s
i
n
g
l
e
m
o
d
u
l
e
f
i
r
e
w
i
t
h
edge
i
g
n
i
t
i
on
Rys
un
e
k 6
.
S
y
m
u
l
a
c
j
a
CF
D
r
o
z
p
r
z
e
str
z
e
n
i
a
n
i
a
s
i
ę
p
o
ż
a
r
u
w
m
o
d
u
l
e
p
r
z
y
z
ap
ł
on
i
e
skr
a
j
n
y
m
2810/2025
www.
inf
o
rmacjain
s
tal
.
c
o
m
.
pl
I
and the fire di
s
tributi
o
n in
s
ide and bet
w
een
the m
o
dule
s
.
Similarl
y
t
o
the previ
o
u
s
s
tage, the
s
imulati
o
n
s
a
ss
umed predefined
igniti
o
n
o
f the fir
s
t m
o
dule,
w
hile the ne
x
t
m
o
dule fire
s
tarted aut
o
maticall
y
w
hen it
s
internal therm
o
c
o
uple
s
(THCP) reached
500°C
.
E
ach m
o
dule had 32 therm
o
c
o
u-
ple
s
in the c
o
rner
s
and
w
all
s
.
The
s
pread
o
f
the fire i
s
ba
s
ed
o
n the H
RR
curve previ-
o
u
s
l
y
defined f
o
r the
s
ingle m
o
dule
.
The main purp
o
s
e
o
f building the m
o
d-
el t
o
perf
o
rm c
o
mputer
s
imulati
o
n
s
w
a
s
t
o
repr
o
duce the acti
o
n
o
f
w
ater mi
s
t in e
x
tin-
gui
s
hing batter
y
fire
s
.
The
s
imulati
o
n re
s
ult
s
are pre
s
ented in
F
ig
.
10, and the fire curve
o
btained in thi
s
ca
s
e i
s
vi
s
ible in
F
ig
.
11
.
Then, the
s
ame parameter
s
w
ere
s
imulated
again, but
w
ith
o
ut the u
s
e
o
f
w
ater mi
s
t
.
I
t
c
o
nfirmed that
w
ith
o
ut the u
s
e
o
f the e
x
tin-
gui
s
hing
s
y
s
tem, the fire
s
pread
s
rapidl
y
t
o
all m
o
dule
s
in the energ
y
s
t
o
rage
.
The
s
imulati
o
n re
s
ult
s
are pre
s
ented in
F
ig
.
12,
and the fire curve received in thi
s
ca
s
e i
s
vi
s
ible in
F
ig
.
13
.
D
i
sc
u
ss
i
on
a
n
d
C
on
c
l
u
s
i
on
s
A
lth
o
ugh internal batter
y
pr
o
tecti
o
n
mechani
s
m
s
are imp
o
rtant and helpful,
the
y
ma
y
n
o
t al
w
a
y
s
be
s
ufficient t
o
pre-
vent fire
s
, highlighting the need f
o
r e
x
ternal
e
x
tingui
s
hing
s
o
luti
o
n
s
.
Thi
s
s
tud
y
empha-
s
i
s
e
s
the crucial r
o
le
o
f l
ow
-pre
ss
ure
w
ater
mi
s
t
s
y
s
tem
s
in c
o
ntr
o
lling Li
B
fire
s
, e
s
pe-
ciall
y
under thermal runa
w
a
y
c
o
nditi
o
n
s
.
A
lth
o
ugh
w
ater mi
s
t
s
y
s
tem
s
d
o
n
o
t directl
y
s
t
o
p the
s
ingle cell thermal runa
w
a
y
, the
y
pr
o
vide
s
ignificant c
oo
ling t
o
prevent fur-
ther igniti
o
n
o
f neighb
o
uring cell
s
and their
reigniti
o
n, pr
o
ving their effectivene
ss
a
s
a
s
afet
y
mea
s
ure in batter
y
s
t
o
rage r
oo
m
applicati
o
n
s
.
The article pre
s
ent
s
a
s
tructured re-
s
earch pr
o
cedure in
w
hich the c
o
mputer
m
o
del
w
a
s
adapted and the fir
s
t
s
tage
s
mall
s
cale
o
f re
s
earch
w
a
s
e
x
panded u
s
-
ing the pre-verified C
F
D
m
o
del
.
The main
purp
o
s
e
o
f thi
s
article
w
a
s
t
o
build a m
o
d-
el f
o
r perf
o
rming c
o
mputer
s
imulati
o
n
s
and
t
o
repr
o
duce the acti
o
n
o
f
w
ater mi
s
t in
e
x
tingui
s
hing a batter
y
s
t
o
rage r
oo
m fire
.
I
t
w
a
s
c
o
nfirmed that the e
x
tingui
s
hing
s
y
s
-
tem c
o
uld effectivel
y
c
o
ntr
o
l the fire in the
energ
y
s
t
o
rage r
oo
m and prevent it fr
o
m
s
preading t
o
s
ub
s
equent batter
y
m
o
dule
s
.
Thr
o
ugh the advanced c
o
mputati
o
nal fluid
d
y
namic
s
(C
F
D
) m
o
delling, the re
s
earch
dem
o
n
s
trate
s
that the
w
ater mi
s
t effectivel
y
reduce
s
temperature
s
and inhibit
s
the
s
pread
o
f fire t
o
adjacent m
o
dule
s
.
The
C
F
D
s
imulati
o
n
s
pr
o
vided detailed in
s
ight
s
int
o
the interacti
o
n bet
w
een
w
ater mi
s
t and
the thermal characteri
s
tic
s
o
f Li
B
fire
s
, re-
vealing p
o
tential p
o
ss
ibilitie
s
f
o
r
o
ptimi
s
ing
mi
s
t di
s
tributi
o
n and dr
o
plet
s
i
z
e t
o
achieve
F
i
g
u
r
e
9
.
T
h
e
t
h
e
o
r
e
t
i
c
a
l
s
p
r
ead
of
f
i
r
e
i
n
l
a
r
ge
-
sc
a
l
e
t
e
sts
Rys
un
e
k 9
.
R
o
z
p
r
z
e
st
r
z
e
n
i
a
n
i
e
s
i
ę
p
o
ż
a
r
u
w
maga
z
y
n
i
e
e
n
e
r
g
ii
w
pe
ł
n
e
j
sk
a
li
F
i
g
u
r
e
10
.
CF
D
s
i
m
u
l
a
t
i
on
of
t
h
e
f
ir
e
i
n
e
n
e
r
g
y st
o
r
age
w
i
t
h
w
a
t
e
r
m
i
st
e
x
t
i
n
g
u
i
s
h
me
n
t
Rys
un
e
k 10
.
S
y
m
u
l
a
c
j
a
CF
D
r
o
z
p
r
z
e
str
z
e
n
i
a
n
i
a
s
i
ę
p
o
ż
a
r
u
w
maga
z
y
n
i
e
e
n
e
r
g
ii
z
mg
ł
ą
w
o
d
n
ą
18 s
29 s
55 s
75 s
19
s
29
s
44
s
57
s
75 s
90 s
F
i
g
u
r
e
11
.
H
RR
c
u
r
v
e
f
r
o
m
t
h
e
C
D
F s
i
m
u
l
a
t
i
on
of
f
i
r
e
i
n
e
n
e
r
g
y st
o
r
age
w
i
t
h
w
a
t
e
r
m
i
st
e
x
t
i
n
g
u
i
s
h
me
n
t
Rys
un
e
k 11
.
Kr
z
yw
a
p
o
ż
a
r
u
m
o
d
u
ł
u
n
a
p
o
d
st
a
-
w
i
e
sy
m
u
l
a
c
ji
CF
D
w
maga
z
y
n
i
e
e
n
e
r
g
ii
z
mg
ł
ą
w
o
d
n
ą
F
i
g
u
r
e
13
.
H
RR
c
u
r
v
e
f
r
o
m
t
h
e
C
D
F s
i
m
u
l
a
t
i
on
of
f
i
r
e
i
n
e
n
e
r
g
y st
o
r
age
w
i
t
hou
t
e
x
t
i
n
g
u
i
s
h
me
n
t
Rys
un
e
k 13
.
Kr
z
yw
a
p
o
ż
a
r
u
m
o
d
u
ł
u
n
a
p
o
d
st
a
-
w
i
e
sy
m
u
l
a
c
ji
CF
D
w
maga
z
y
n
i
e
e
n
e
r
g
ii
be
z
mg
ły w
o
d
n
e
j
F
i
g
u
r
e
12
.
CF
D
s
i
m
u
l
a
t
i
on
of
f
i
r
e
i
n
e
n
e
r
g
y st
o
r
age
w
i
t
hou
t
w
a
t
e
r
m
i
st
no
zz
l
e
s
Rys
un
e
k 12
.
S
y
m
u
l
a
c
j
a
CF
D
r
o
z
p
r
z
e
str
z
e
n
i
a
n
i
a
s
i
ę
p
o
ż
a
r
u
w
maga
z
y
n
i
e
e
n
e
r
g
ii
be
z
mg
ły w
o
d
-
n
e
j
I
n
st
a
l
a
c
j
e
p
.
p
o
ż
.
ma
x
imum c
oo
ling efficienc
y
and effective
s
upp
o
rt f
o
r C
F
D
m
o
delling in de
s
igning fire
pr
o
tecti
o
n
s
y
s
tem
s
f
o
r energ
y
s
t
o
rage
r
oo
m
s
.
F
uture re
s
earch
s
h
o
uld further f
o
cu
s
o
n
the u
s
e
o
f C
F
D
technique
s
t
o
o
ptimi
z
e
w
a-
ter mi
s
t applicati
o
n
s
and e
x
pl
o
re
o
ther e
x
-
tingui
s
hing agent
s
.
E
nhancing fire
s
uppre
s
-
s
i
o
n capabilitie
s
thr
o
ugh
s
imulati
o
n and
m
o
delling
w
ill be vital f
o
r vari
o
u
s
Li
B
c
o
n-
figurati
o
n
s
and
o
perating c
o
nditi
o
n
s
, c
o
n-
tributing t
o
s
afer batter
y
techn
o
l
o
gie
s
.
R
E
F
E
R
E
N C
E
S
P
[
1
]
X.
F
eng,
D.
R
en,
X.
He, and
M
.
O
u
y
ang,
M
iti-
gating Thermal
R
una
w
a
y
o
f Lithium-
I
o
n
B
atter-ie
s
,
J
o
ule, v
o
l
.
4, n
o.
4, pp
.
743
770,
2020, d
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i
:
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j
o
ule
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2020
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02
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H
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J
o
achin, T
.
D.
Kaun, K
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Z
aghib, and J
.
Pra
k
a
s
h,
E
lectr
o
chemical and Thermal Studie
s
o
f Li
F
eP
O
4 Cath
o
de in Lithium-
I
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n Cell
s
,
2008
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:
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i
s
hra,
R.
Tummala, T
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B
rigm
o
n, and
A.
Jain,
Simulati
o
n
s
-ba
s
ed inve
s
tigati
o
n
o
f the effec-
tivene
ss
o
f fire
s
uppre
ss
i
o
n technique
s
f
o
r
s
afe,
large-
s
cale
s
t
o
rage
o
f Li-i
o
n batterie
s
,
J
E
nerg
y
St
o
rage, v
o
l
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84, n
o.
P
B
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:
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1016/j
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e
s
t
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2024
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110870
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[
4
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R.
Sp
o
tnit
z
and J
.
F
ran
k
lin,
A
bu
s
e behavi
o
r
o
f
high-p
ow
er, lithium-i
o
n cell
s
,
J P
ow
er S
o
urce
s
,
v
o
l
.
113, n
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1, pp
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81
100, 2003, d
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[
5
]
.
R
u
ss
o
, C
.
D
i
B
ari,
M
.
M
a
zz
ar
o
,
A.
D
e
Ro
s
a,
and
I
.
M
o
rriell
o
,
E
ffective fire e
x
tingui
s
hing
s
y
s
tem
s
f
o
r lithium-i
o
n batter
y
,
Chem
E
ng
Tran
s
, v
o
l
.
67, pp
.
727
732, 2018, d
o
i
:
10
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3303/C
E
T1867122
.
[
6
]
B
.
Łu
k
a
s
z
,
I
.
Ry
ba
kow
s
k
a,
A.
Kra
kow
ia
k
,
M
.
G
reg
o
rc
z
yk
, and W
.
Waldman,
Lithium
B
at-
terie
s
Safet
y
, Wider Per
s
pective,
I
nt J
O
ccup
M
ed
E
nvir
o
n Health, v
o
l
.
36, n
o.
1, pp
.
3
20,
2023, d
o
i
:
10
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o
meh
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[
7
]
P
.
A
nder
ss
o
n, P
.
B
l
o
mqvi
s
t,
A.
L
o
rén, and
F
.
Lar
ss
o
n,
I
nve
s
tigati
o
n
o
f fire emi
ss
i
o
n
s
fr
o
m
Li-i
o
n batterie
s
.
[
8
]
S
.
D
ahlb
o
m,
M
.
Sanfrid
s
o
n, and T
.
Sj
ö
bl
o
m,
E
valuati
o
n
o
f
D
etecti
o
n Principle
s
and Chal-
lenge
s
in
E
arl
y
D
etecti
o
n
o
f Thermal
R
una
w
a
y
in
B
atterie
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,
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M
.
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hiji et al
.
,
A
revie
w
o
f lithium-i
o
n batter
y
fire
s
uppre
ss
i
o
n,
O
ct
.
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D
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I
A
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w
ai, N
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Ta
k
ata, and H
.
Y
o
s
hi
ok
a,
E
L
E
CT
R
I
F
I
C
A
T
I
O
N
E
nhancing the
F
ire Safe-
t
y
o
f Stati
o
nar
y
Lithium-
I
o
n
B
atter
y
S
y
s
tem
s
:
S
o
luti
o
n
s
f
o
r
M
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R
una
w
a
y
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i
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k
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.
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r
ö
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M
.
Q
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M
.
R
a
s
mu
ss
en,
O
.
Will
s
trand, and J
.
H
y
n
y
nen,
D
I
V
I
S
I
O
N S
A
FE
T
Y
A
N
D
T
RA
NSP
O
R
T
F
I
R
E
S
A
FE
T
RA
NSP
O
R
T
G
uideline
s
f
o
r the fire pr
o
tecti
o
n
o
f batter
y
energ
y
s
t
o
rage
s
y
s
tem
s
.
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Y
.
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.
,
A
revie
w
o
f lithium-i
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n batter
y
s
afet
y
c
o
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s
:
The i
ss
ue
s
,
s
trategie
s
, and te
s
t-
ing
s
tandard
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,
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urnal
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nerg
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Chemi
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s
t N
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zz
le
s
f
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r
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ss
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irl Water
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s
t N
o
zz
le
s
f
o
r
F
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ss
i
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n,
I
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nvir
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n
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n
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enia
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a p
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m
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cą
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y
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temu mgł
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wo
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yk
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z
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